Division of Research School of Business Administration The University of Michigan ASIAN MANAGERS: A COMPARISON WITH U.S. COUNTERPARTS Working Paper No. 483 Herbert W. Hildebrandt The University of Michigan Dee W. Edington The University of Michigan FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES ONLY None of this material is to be quoted or reproduced without the expressed permission of the Division of Research January 1987

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Asian Managers: A Comparison with U.S. Counterparts With the internationalizing of business education and with the increased emphasis on business and trade with the Far East, interest continues in the persons who work there, either in U.S. multinational companies or in entirely foreign companies. The subsequent discussion is a continuation of research which seeks to profile both the U.S. executive and manager, and the Asian manager, for the better understanding of each in order to conduct business more expeditiously. Monographs have appeared on U.S. women managers, "A Managerial Profile: The Woman Manager" (1985); on both male and female managers, "A Managerial Profile" (1984); and on top-level executives, namely, Chairmen of the Board, Presidents, and Vice-Presidents, "The Newly Promoted Executive: A Study in Corporate Leadership" (1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986). Because the above studies have been on-going for several years, some questions —serving as the core for the research —permit longitudinal comparison; others are relatively new, reflecting current managerial concerns. Thus, since 1984 we have added and focused upon the importance of lifestyles, those habits and behaviors which can affect the health of businesspersons. It takes considerably longer to collect data on foreign managers and executives than on their U.S. counterparts. Thus, the Asian managers who comprise this study reflect data gathered over three years: 249 Hong Kong Chinese; 62 Singaporeans; 5 Malaysians; and 3 Koreans, for a total of 319. These 319 were matched as closely as possible, on the basis of age, sex, weight, and height, with American counterparts, ensuring a more valid comparison. The survey instrument is a variation of the questionnaire directed at newly promoted executives in the United States. In the Far East, however, that questionnaire together with a personal interview with each Asian participant were used to collect data. Readers will see that a prose analysis and description section precedes the data, divided into four categories: (1) Career Patterns; (2) Education; (3) Personal; and (4) Lifestyles.

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CAREER PATTERN 1. Industries represented. Over seventeen different industries are represented in the Asian management group, ranging from the nonmanufacturing area of banking to the manufacturing area of transportation equipment. As expected, the range of companies represented was diverse. When collapsing the different industry groups into seven major business categories, nearly two-thirds of the managers come from professional services (27.0 percent), followed by durable goods, manufacturing (18.9 perceht), nondurable goods, manufacturing (16.7 percent), and finance, insurance, real estate (13.8 percent). The relative frequency of the managers and their major business categories follows: Business Group Total Durable Goods, Manufacturing 18.9 Nondurable Goods, Manufacturing 16.7 Finance, Insurance, Real Estate 13.8 Regulated Industries 12.5 Professional Services 27.0 Retail and Wholesale Trade 5.1 Other Industries 5.7 100%* *Rounding will sometimes result in percentages greater or less than 100%. 2. Company size as measured by annual gross operating revenue. Fifty percent of the companies have an annual gross operating revenue in excess of $500 million. Over one third exceed $2 billion, and over 25 percent have a gross operating revenue in excess of $10 1

billion a year. At the other end of the spectrum, only 42.3 percent of the companies have an annual gross operating revenue of less than $100 million. From these data it can be concluded that the managers in this study represent characteristics of large rather than small firms; the reader should keep company size in mind as the data are summarized. Gross Operating Revenue Total Under $100 million 42.3 $100 million to less than $500 million 7.7 $500 million to less than $1 billion 7.3 $1 billion to less than $2 billion 3.5 $2 billion to less than $10 billion 12.0 Over $10 billion 26.8 100% 3. Time spent with present employer. A view of the following table suggests major clustering between one year through five years. In fact, over 75 percent of the managers have been in their present position for ten years or less, compared to their American counterparts of whom 61.5 percent have spent ten years or less with their present employer. Years with Company Total Less than 1 9.9 1-5 52.9 6-10 18.6 11-15 11.2 16-20 4.1 21-25 1.9 Over 25.9 100% 2

4. Level within the managerial hierarchy. Positioning individuals within an organizational hierarchy on the basis of job titles can be difficult and sometimes misleading. One way to circumvent this problem is by considering the span of control and the relative management level within the organization's management hierarchy. -Direct control. The number of persons directly or indirectly reporting to a manager is one means of judging the degree of influence exercised within an organization. Among the Asian managers, over 50 percent reported they had fewer than four people directly reporting to them. By contrast, less than 19 percent of them had no direct reports while 15.5 percent reported that they had between six to ten employees directly reporting. -Indirect control. As expected, the number of persons indirectly reporting to a manager is larger than the number reporting directly and the data support this expectation. According to the data, nearly 30 percent of the managers report they have over six employees indirectly reporting to them. — Relative management position. Managers in this study were approximately in the lower middle range of the management hierarchy. Over 50 percent reported there were fewer than three levels of management separating them from the CEO. In contrast, most reported there were slightly fewer than two levels of management below their current management positions. 3

5. Number of companies worked for. Just over two-thirds (67.3 percent) have worked for only two companies, suggesting the managers were just beginning their careers. By contrast, 17.2 percent had worked for three companies and about 15.1 percent had worked for more than four different employers. 6. Major area of responsibility -First job. It does not appear unusual that most managers began their careers in the area of Marketing/Sales, quite comparable to their American counterparts. That area was followed by Production/Operations, 19.2 percent beginning there. — Current job. Nor did a rapid shift from Marketing/Sales occur after their first job: most (17.2 percent) were still in their initial job area. American managers, by contrast, had already moved to positions in the areas of Personnel/Industrial Relations and Marketing/Sales. — Last job. Production/Operations moved to second position (14.5 percent) with Marketing/Sales still holding the foremost job position, 23.1 percent. That is, it appears that Asian managers are less prone to move quickly from their initial area within a company. -Second-to-last job. Both Marketing/Sales (22.4 percent) and Production/Operations (19.1 percent) continue to occupy the major job positions. 4

Second- Fastest If Major Area First Current Last to- Most Route Starting of Responsibility Job Job Job Last Job Time Up Over Production/Operations 19.2 5.3 14.5 19.1 17.1 12.1 8.6 Marketing/Sales 20.9 17.2 23.1 22.4 28.8 41.6 37.9 Finance/Accounting/Taxes 13.5 5.7 12.4 11.2 11.7 11.6 12.5 Personnel/Industrial Relations 3.2 2.8 5.5 5.6 2.7 5.0 3.8 Research and Development 6.0 1.1 5.1 5.0 2.7.5 3.8 Law -- - - -.5 3.3 General Management/ Administration 12.0 5.7 13.3 10.1 10.3 8.6 8.6 Computer/Information Systems 12.0 8.0 15.0 12.9 14.8 12.6 15.3 Other 12.8 4.5 10.7 13.4 11.7 7.1 5.2

-Most time. The question specifically was, "In which major area of responsibility have you spent the most time?" Again, just over a quarter (28.8 percent) spent more time in Marketing/Sales than the other eight areas of choice. Production/Operations was second (17.1 percent) followed by Computer/Information Systems (14.8 percent). Little time was spent in Research and Development or Personnel/Industrial Relations. -Fastest route to the top. Interestingly, both American and Asian managers agree: the fastest route to the top is via Marketing/Sales, 31.7 percent and 41.6 percent respectively. — If starting career over. Again, Far Eastern and Western attitudes towards starting a career over parallel each other: they agree that Marketing/Sales is the area in which to start, 37.9 percent and 24.5 percent respectively. Asians (15.3 percent) position Computer/Information Systems as the second most important area in which to begin if starting over. If a major conclusion may be drawn it is that Marketing/Sales is the area in which to begin, for purposes of getting to the top of an organization. 7. Annual base salary. Even before viewing the following statistics, one is tempted to guess that Asian salaries will be lower. They are, considerably. On the basis of sex, males —in both cultures —receive a larger mean dollar figure than their female colleagues: Asian males, $27,722; females, $19,983; U.S. males, $46,501; females, $31,702. 5

Because the base starting salary in a previous position is comparatively lower among the Asians, their percentage of salary increase when moving to their current position is considerable as measured by mean percentage increases: Asian males, 50.3 percent, females, 32.3 percent. American managers, in part because they are slightly older and change jobs more frequently, have a smaller mean percentage increase: U.S. males, 29 percent, females, 27.9 percent. But regardless of the differences between the managers in both cultures, male and female salaries continue to rise, particularly when moving from a previous position. Asian U.S. Median Salary Male Female Male Female Prior to current position $14,928 $12,150 $34,999 $24,953 Current position 22,500 21,282 44,001 29,998 Dollar increase 7,572 9,132 9,002 5,000 Percentage increase 50.7 75.7 25.7 20.0 Asian U.S. Mean Salary Male Female Male Female Prior to current position Current position Dollar increase Percentage increase $18,440 27,722 9,282 50.3 $15,094 19,983 4,889 32.3 $36,039 46,501 10,462 29.0 $24,781 31,702 6,921 27.9 8. At.your level in the organization is it considered important that you will— Participate in external political activity? It is no surprise that political activity is of little importance to the managers, indeed, 36.6 percent consider it "Very Unimportant," not out of step with American managers. 6

— Encourage a mentoring process? Not quite half of the American managers studied consider mentoring important compared with the Asians, of whom only one-quarter consider it important. -Work a certain number of hours a week? The mean number of hours Asian managers worked in a week was 49.9, the median was 50, each 1.2 hours more than the U.S. managers worked. Contrastingly, American executives for 1983-85 —chairmen, presidents, and vice-presidents —worked, on average, 55.3 hours a week, suggesting that the higher one rises in an organization, the more time one spends on the job either out of necessity or out of desire. Data are insufficient to generalize about Asian executives. — Support formal/informal communication? Both forms of communication receive about equal emphasis. Thus while formal communication (written reports, staff meetings) received 43.5 percent "Very Important" rankings, informal communication (phone, impromptu meetings) is similar at 40.6 percent. Neither mode of communication received any assessment in the category "Very Unimportant." — Comment on social problems? No firm consensus occurs; most managers are apparently not asked to comment on social issues. — Corporate rituals? Defining a ritual as "award ceremonies, recognition pins, or recognition dinners," suggests that the managers considered them 7

important, to the extent that over 90 percent ranked such activity either "Very" or "Somewhat" significant in their company. -Corporate culture? In a denotative definition, culture is described as a carrying forward of a pattern of human behavior. We applied that principle to companies through examples of "strict/casual lines of authority; formal/ informal dress; atmosphere of tenseness/relaxation"; and others. About half (49 percent) feel they have a definite corporate culture, 33 percent are neutral, and 18 percent feel a definite culture does not exist. Goals and innovation were noted as most important in characterizing their corporate culture. Very Very Important Unimportant Company Activity 1 2 3 4 5 Political activity -- 12.5 26.8 24.1 36.6 Mentor 2.2 23.6 44.9 9.0 16.9 Hours of work/wk. 49.9 hrs. Formal communication 43.5 49.5 5.1 1.7 - Informal communication 40.6 45.0 12.7 1.4 -- Social problems 7.5 27.4 29.2 21.4 14.2 Corporate rituals 40.0 50.5 9.5 - Corporate culture 14.0 35.0 33.0 11.0 7.0 9. Communication as part of a business day. In a typical business day none of the four traditional forms of communication (listening, reading, speaking, writing) is dominant, although speaking is ranked first for consuming 28.7 percent of a manager's communication time, followed by listening, writing, and reading. Listening has fallen in value from earlier studies where it received more emphasis, as high as 44 percent of a business day. 8

hen the question is asked "what percentage of time should be devoted in business communication courses for improving the four basic forms of communication," speaking assumes the foremost position (32.5 percent) followed by writing, listening, and reading. Communication in Typical Business Day Speaking Listening Writing Reading Typical Day 28.7 25.3 24.4 21.4 Recommended 32.5 24.7 26.8 17.6 10. Hodes of communication. Of the eight choices regarding the four most important modes of communication used in sending and receiving messages within their business, the dominant mode was the same as in the communication rankings mentioned earlier —namely, oral communication. Both the telephone and face-to-face communication were used most often, followed by the memorandum and computer mail. At the bottom was video conferencing and teleconferencing, with the letter in the middle position. Complete tabulations are found in the accompanying table. Modes of communication Telephone Face to Face Memorandum Computer Mail Letter Electronic Blackboard Teleconferencing Video Conferencing Percentage of Respondents Listing Modes as 1 of 4 Means of Communication 90 77.5 55 30 29 5 5 5 9

Education 11. Education. Nearly two-thirds of the Asian managers attained an undergraduate degree (65.4 percent), and while that is less than American managers (81.6 percent), it can be said that Asian managers are primarily college educated. Adding the category of "some college, but no degree" to those completing college increases the percentage to eight out of ten who went beyond high school. As in the United States the conclusion can be drawn that managers are highly educated, representing a continuing trend — demanded by businesses throughout the world. Education level Total Less than high school 2.5 High school graduate 12.4 Some college, no degree 19.4 Received undergraduate degree 65.4 100% -Undergraduate field of study. The most common undergraduate majors of the Asian managers were Business Administration (32.2 percent), Engineering (26.1 percent), and Science and Mathematics (22.7 percent), the identical ordering of American managers. Few managers concentrated in the Humanities and Liberal Arts. Apparently, foreign managers of business enterprises are obtaining a professionally oriented undergraduate education. Precisely a quarter of the managers obtained an advanced degree, and among them, 49.3 percent acquired it in Business Administration. Engineering and Mathematics were a distant second and third. The 10

emphasis on professional technical education at the undergraduate level is carried forward into the managers' graduate education. Graduate Major Fields of Study Undergraduate Professional Degree Business Administration 32.2 49.3 Engineering 26.1 22.0 Science and Mathematics 22.7 18. 1 Social Science 13.3 2.5 Behavioral Science 2.2 1.2 Humanities and Liberal Arts 2.2 2.5 Law and Prelaw 1.1 - Other -- 3.8 12. Recommended undergraduate and graduate major. At the undergraduate level, 42.3 percent would recommend Business Administration-followed by Engineering at 25.8 percent —as the course of study to prepare one for a management career. Managers in the current study also give less emphasis to Humanities (2.9 percent) as compared with their U.S. counterparts, 8.6 percent of whom support a Humanities undergraduate degree. At the graduate level, Asians give strongest support to Business Administration, 82.4 percent, almost parallel with the responses of newly promoted executives, 76.3 percent of whom recommend a Business Administration degree when pursuing graduate/professional study. Science and Mathematics was a distant second. No other areas are recommended for graduate work. 11

Undergraduate Percentage Graduate Percentage Study Recommending Study Recommending Business Business Administration 42.3 Administration 82.4 Engineering 25.8 Science and Humanities and Mathematics 17.5 Liberal Arts 2.9 Social Sciences 11.7 100% Science and Mathematics 11.1 Behavioral Science 4.7 Other 1.1 100% 13. Specific courses as preparation for general management. Consistently, across all management groups, Communication has been considered most important as preparation for a career in general management. With the foreign managers, Communication was further divided into oral and written; that classification resulted in slightly higher support for Oral Communication, followed by Written Communication. However, despite that division, both communication modes held the initial positions. Business Policy/Planning and Marketing were in the third and fourth position. The lowest rankings were given to Statistics, Production/Operations, and Business Law. What the managers are suggesting is that although functional areas are important in preparing for a business career, the communication tools are the vehicles needed to express clearly a competence in those areas. Executives and U.S. managers agree: they too position Communication first, but they offer some different rankings for the other functional areas. 12

Business Communication —Oral Business Communication —Written Business Policy/Planning Marketing Finance Personnel/Industrial Relations Business Economics/Public Policy Accounting Computer/Information Systems International Business Advertising/Sales Promotion Business Law Production/Operations Statistics Very Important 1 71.8 69.7 48.2 40.2 38.5 36.1 34.2 30.2 27.0 21.5 19.3 19.1 11.7 10.8 2 25.0 26.0 42.3 41.6 47.2 38.6 43.8 54.9 51. 7 48.2 48.0 48.9 43.6 45.4 3 3.1 4.1 7.6 15.6 12.5 22.3 19.7 12.3 17.7 27.4 26.2 27.3 36.5 34.6 4 Very Unimportant 5 1.7 2.4 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.3 3.4 2.7 6.2 4.6 6.7 8.3.1 1.4.7 X

Personal 14. Age and retirement. In the study The Newly Promoted Executive the mean age for U.S. executives was 47.1 while in the Managerial Profile for U.S. Managers the mean was 38.3. The foreign managers in this study had a mean age of 32.6, nearly six years younger than their U.S. colleagues. Both males (mean age 33.1) and females (mean age 30.4) in this study are respectively 6.1 and 3.9 years younger than comparable U.S. managers. Inescapable is the observation that foreign managers begin their careers considerably younger than their Western counterparts, and intend to retire earlier. Age in Years Total Male Female Mean 32.6 33.1 30.4 Median 32.5 33.3 28.5 Mode 31.5 31.5 26.0 While most U.S. managers intend to retire at age 65, the mode, that retirement age decreases to age 60 in Asian managers. Heavy clustering surrounds the retirement years of 55, 60, and 65, as is the case with U.S. managers. Age at Retirement Total Male Female Mean 58.2 59.7 50.8 Median 60.0 60.0 50.0 Mode 60.0 60.0 52.5 15. Sex Both Asian and U.S. managers have identical percentages regarding the number of males and females in the work place, 80 percent male, 20 13

percent female. That relatively high percentage of women is far in excess of women at top executive ranks, where our 1985-86 study suggests only 2.6 percent reach positions as CEO, President, or Vice-President. What the executive data suggest is that women either drop out of the workforce or are denied extensive advancement beyond the managerial level. Further monitoring of Asian female managers must occur before any conclusion is stated. 16. Order of birth. Of the Asian managers, most were middle children (49.7 percent) in contrast to U.S. managers (28.9 percent), a major difference between the two groups. While over a third of U.S. managers were first-born children, just over a quarter of the Asian managers fall into that category. Order of Birth Asian U.S. Only child 4.5 9.9 First child 28.9 36.1 Middle child 49.7 28.9 Last child 16.9 25.1 100% 100% 17. Income of parental home. Both Asian and U.S. managers come from middle income homes. Data for executives are similar, suggesting that all three groups had their beginnings in relatively modest surroundings. Income Level of Home Asian U.S. Upper 8.0 6.0 Middle income 68.0 65.8 Lower income 23.8 28.1 14

18. Parents' single predominant occupation. Interestingly, about the same percentage of the mothers of Asian managers were homemakers as were those of the U.S. managers, 79.2 percent and 76.0 percent respectively. The comparable figure is somewhat surprising to Westerners, some of whom believe that few Asian mothers work outside the home. Those mothers who did were professionals (6 percent); laborers and operatives (4.1 percent each); and officials and managers (3 percent). A further comparison with U.S. executives' mothers shows that at that level over 80 percent were homemakers, with only a sprinkling in the other work categories. What about the predominant occupation of Asian fathers? Most were officials and managers (30 percent); followed distantly by professionals 13.1 percent); office clericals (9.7 percent); and technicians (8.7 percent). These results are quite parallel with fathers of U.S. managers, most of whom held positions as officials and managers. Mother Father Predominant Occupation Asian U.S. Asian U.S. Homemaker 79.2% 76.0% 1.0%.3% Office clerical.3 8.7 9.7 4.0 Professional 6.0 5.1 13.1 14.5 Laborer 4.1 2.9 7.7 14.0 Service worker 2.6 2.4 5.4 4.7 Sales.7 1.6 8.1 9.9 Officials and managers 3.0 1.3 30.0 23.4 Skilled crafts 1.1.9 6.4 13.4 Operative 4.1.6 4.0 5.0 Technician --.3 8.7 5.0 Farmer.7.1 1.0 5.1 Other -- - 1.6.9 15

19. Religion. Somewhat surprising is the relatively large number of Asian managers who are Christian, a third considering themselves either Protestant (18.3 percent) or Catholic (14.7 percent). One also presumes that Asians are closely connected with Eastern religions. The data suggest otherwise; only 9.1 percent profess other religions and 57.9 percent indicate no religious affiliation compared to only 5.6 percent of U.S. managers for the same category. Religion Total Protestant 18.3 Catholic 14.7 None 57.9 Jewish -- Other 9.1 100% 20. Marital status. Comparatively, more male Asian managers (73.1 percent) are married to their first spouse than are female managers (44.2 percent), a statement somewhat parallel to that for U.S. managers, 77.5 percent and 50.5 percent respectively. At the mean age of 30.4, 44.2 percent of the female Asian managers had not married, again in vivid contrast to their U.S. female manager counterparts, of whom 19.6 percent had not married at the mean age of 34.1. Economic and social considerations in the Far East may mitigate against an early marriage for females, or may dictate no marriage at all. Predictably, because of the managers' relatively young age, few are divorced or in their second marriage, and only an insignificant number of males live with someone to whom they are not married. 16

Marital Status Total Male Female Never married 36.1 25.0 49.1 1st marriage 59.6 73.1 44.2 Live with someone but not married 0.3 0.3 Separated 0.3 -- 1.6 2nd marriage 0.6 0.6 Divorced 2.2 0.6 4.9 3rd marriage 0.3 0.1 Widowed - - - 100% 100% 100% 21. Employment status of spouse. A working spouse appears to be entirely acceptable to Asian managers: 65.9 percent of the spouses work full-time compared with the figure of 43.3 percent of U.S. managers. In fact just over seven out of ten Asian spouses do some kind of work to supplement the family income; 28.1 percent of the Asian spouses do not work. 22. Classification of spouse's occupation. An identical ranking of the spouses' three major occupations occurs for both Asian and U.S. managers: Professional, first; Office/ clerical, second; and Managerial, third. Occupation of Spouse Total Professional 36.3 Office/clerical 30.7 Managerial 18.1 Technical 3.4 Sales 3.4 Sole proprietor 5.5 Other 2.0 100% 17

23. Importance of spouse's contribution. Almost half of the Asian managers (47.2 percent) say that their spouses' most important contribution to their business success is the ability to maintain a satisfying and well-run home. U.S. managers rate that quality even more highly, at 51.9 percent. There is a strong contrast between the 56.4 percent of U.S. managers who consider their spouses' emotional support of first importance and the 28 percent of Asian managers who agree. Regardless, the spouses' main contribution lies in the home, with far less support for questions such as additional income, advice on business matters, or community-related concerns. It can be said that ministering to the managers' personal needs are more important than direct business-related activities. Lifestyles 24. Height and weight The mean height and weight of the managers was just over 5'6" and 137.5 pounds. By most general estimates (without knowing frame sizes and percent body fat) Asian managers are approximately 4.2 pounds underweight by North American standards (men 4.1 pounds underweight and women 11.6 pounds underweight). That contrasts with a comparable U.S. group which is on average 14.4 pounds overweight. 25. Smoking, drinking Twelve percent of the Asian managers report being current smokers while 7.4 percent are ex-smokers and 80.6 percent never smoked. The average for all smokers was 14 cigarettes per day. U.S. managers have, by comparison, the following data: 26 percent smoke; 23.6 percent are 18

Extremely Very Somewhat Little No Important Important Important Importance Importance Maintaining Satisfying and Well-Run Home 47.2 36.9 9.2 5.9.5 Offering Emotional Support 28.0 41.5 21.9 6.1 2.2 Providing Additional Income 6.6 16.4 32.8 26.2 18.0 Providing Advice on Business-related matters 3.5 17.2 27.9 27.3 23.8 Acting as Host or Hostess 2.9 20.9 39.5 22.0 14.5 Engaging in CommunityRelated Activities 2.8 13.0 29.5 27.2 27.2 Participating in Official Company-Related Activities 2.2 16.6 36.1 28.8 16.1 Providing Clerical or Miscellaneous Assistance to Your Job - 7.8 17.4 29.6 45.2 4

ex-smokers; and 50.3 percent are nonsmokers. Though American managers are smoking less than previously, they still exceed-by 14 percent — their Asian counterparts. Drinking is a slightly more common behavior among Asians: 20.1 percent report being drinkers, with fewer than seven drinks per week. Of the U.S. managers, 59.4 percent are drinkers; 3.8 percent are exdrinkers; and 36.6 percent are nondrinkers. Smoking/Drinking Behavior Smokers Drinkers Never 80.6 79.2 Ex- 7.4 0.7 Presently 12.0 20.1 100% 100% 26. Drug usage Specifically, the question was "How often do you use drugs or medication which affect your mood or help you to relax?" The overwhelming majority of both the Asian and American managers report rarely or never. Only 0.4 percent of our Asian sample group used drugs on a daily basis compared with some U.S. managers at 2.9 percent. Drug usage Asian U.S. Almost daily 0.4% 2.9% Occasionally 9.2 8.6 Rarely or never 90.4 88.4 100% 100% 27. Blood pressure Negative though it may sound, most Asian managers do not know their blood pressure levels, either systolic or diastolic, 83.8 percent 19

falling into that category as contrasted to U.S. managers, 44.6 percent of whom are unaware of blood pressure readings. Of the Asians who know their levels 6.5 percent reported borderline or high blood pressure (considered to be 140/90). A quick inference may be that Asians depend more on their physicians to monitor their blood pressure levels much as they would rely upon a mechanic to monitor their automobile. Another possibility is that the health-conscious lifestyle of the American society is not "in-vogue" in the Far East. Blood Pressure Asian U.S. No knowledge of their blood pressure 83.8% 44.6% Persons in excess of 140 systolic 2.2% 18.3% Persons in excess of 90 diastolic 4.3% 19.3% 28. Cholesterol levels Most Asians (98.2 percent) do not know their cholesterol level, as compared with U.S. managers of whom 82.7 percent do not know those levels. It is interesting to note, however, that of those Americans who do know their level, 26.7 percent are in excess of the reading considered high, namely, 220. 29. Miles driven and seatbelt usage One is tempted to guess that Asians drive considerably less than their Western colleagues or use seatbelts less. Our data suggest otherwise: Asian managers drive an average of 10,250 miles yearly and use seatbelts an average of 63 percent of the time. This latter figure is higher than in the U.S. (37.6 percent) because of mandated usages in areas as Hong Kong. 20

30. Physical exercise Asian managers are less inclined, on a regular basis, to engage in physical exercise. Some suggest that the "fitness craze" —alluding to the U.S. —has not yet reached the Far East, or at least not at the level of intensity it appears to have reached in the U.S. Thus, 23.2 percent engage in regular exercise, as contrasted with U.S. managers at 45.4 percent. Regular exercise is defined as walking briskly, running, lifting, or carrying at least three times per week. On a more subjective level, those of us who spend considerable time in the Far East notice more persons engaging in fitness activities similar to those in the U.S.; over time that assertion may be given firmer validity. Level of Physical Activity Percent Little 20.8 Occasional 56 Regular 23.2 100% 31. Hours of sleep Eighty-five percent of the managers report 7-8 hours of sleep per night while 4 percent report greater than 9 hours. Few sharp differences occur in the U.S. sample except that 21.4 percent of U.S. managers sleep six or less hours a night. 21

Hours of Sleep Per Night Asian U.S. 6 or less 10.6 21.4 7 48.9 50.5 8 36.6 23.9 9 or more 3.9 4.2 100% 100% 32. Serious personal loss The above heading was defined as a job loss, disability, divorce, separation, jail term, or death of a close person. Just over 22 percent had two or more serious personal losses within the year; 2.5 percent had one loss; and 75.4 percent indicated none. These data add to understanding the mental and physical well-being of the individual, commonly called Quality of Life indicators. 33. Violent arguments Another Quality of Life indicator is the number of violent arguments occurring within a year. Eighty-four percent of the managers report one or no violent argument during the past year. Five percent had two or three while 11 percent engaged in four or more violent arguments. U.S. managers are comparable: 79.7 percent once or never; 15.5 percent two or three times; and 8.4 percent four or more times. 34. Social support It is a Western perception that Asians are far more closely tied to friends and families than are Americans, in particular. That impression weakens after comparing data. In fact, almost twice as many U.S. as Asian managers indicate a strong social support system: 44.9 22

Percent and 23.6 percent respectively. Other comparative data are shown in the following chart. Social Support Asian U.S. Strong 23.6 44.9 Average 62.0 46.8 Below average 12.0 7.1 Unsure 2.5 1.2 100% 100% 35. Overall life satisfaction One of the Quality of Life questions attempted to measure managers' lifestyle satisfaction, that is, what subjective response did they have to life itself. Their questionnaire responses do not indicate why only 13.0 percent of Asians are "Completely Satisfied" with life, a dramatic contrast to the 54.8 percent of American managers who answered this question positively. Those data need more analysis. At the opposite end of the continuum, 7.7 percent of the Asians are "Not Very" satisfied with life whereas only 2.2 percent of the U.S. managers agree. Anecdotal responses in interviews suggest that the close physical proximity in the workplace and cities, the cramped housing accommodations, the little opportunity for aloneness, the difficulty of city travel, the challenges to obtaining a good education, the lower wage scale, may all be factors intruding on a more positive outlook. Many Asian managers who travel and are exposed to the seeming luxuries of Western and European countries, suggest that some environments are superior to their own. Some, for instance, mentioned that TV showed that other countries and cultures have a lifestyle better than their own. 23

In short, Asians' satisfaction with their lifestyle —at the "Completely Satisfied" level —was dramatically lower than was Western managers'. Life Satisfaction Asian U.S. Completely satisfied 13.0 54.8 Quite satisfied 66.2 36.8 Somewhat satisfied 13.0 6.5 Not very satisfied 7.7 2.0 100% 100% 36. Job satisfaction Interestingly, and with additional anecdotal support, Asians and U.S. managers are quite parallel when commenting on job satisfaction. Twenty-two percent of the Asians are "Very Satisfied" with their jobs compared with 23 percent for their U.S. colleagues. Some Asian managers eagerly look forward to work: it permits them to associate with similarly well-dressed and motivated colleagues; to work in a pleasing environment with modern amenities not consistently found at home; to communicate with people and companies which have a world-wide interchange; to sense visual space in an office which may be only a bit smaller than their entire living area. In short, some managers suggested that the comfort of their company's premises —witness the towering, modern structures in Hong Kong —was a refuge from the occasionally cramped quarters of home. 24

Job Satisfaction Asian U.S. Very satisfied 21.8 23.0 Satisfied 64.8 62.4 Disappointed 8.1 11.3 Very disappointed 5.3 2.7 100% 100% 37. Physical health attitudes Exactly twice as many Americans as Asians feel their health is excellent, 26.8 percent and 13.0 percent respectively. More Asians feel they are in poor health (2.8 percent) than Americans (0.5 percent). In considering these data, one must remember the mean age of approximately 33. Health Status Asian U.S. Excellent 13.0 26.8 Good 66.9 59.0 Fair 17.3 11.9 Poor 2.8 0.5 100% 100% 25