i Division of Research Graduate School of Business Administration The University of Michigan November 1984 COMPARATIVE PROFILES OF ASIAN AND U.S. EXECUTIVES Working Paper No. 399 Herbert W. Hildebrandt and Dee W. Edington FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES ONLY None of this material reproduced without the of the Division is to be quoted or expressed permission of Research.

I

COMPARATIVE PROFILES OF ASIAN AND U.S. EXECUTIVES A reoccurring dominant theme heard by U.S. executives in increasing volume is that a relationship exists between work performance and health. So pervasive is this theme that professional and medical literature, and many books, include sub-themes as "stress reduction," "corporate health," "mental health," "wellness," "avoiding excesses," "high illness groups," and a host of other topics. "Lifestyle" is an accepted core word in an executive vocabulary, along with the proposition that stressful mental and physical events produce illness and loss of productivity. An outgrowth of such an emphasis on executive wellness is an increasing number of public fitness clubs, health exercise centers in industry, and testing centers for executive wellness, stressing the physical, mental, and attitude side of the executive self. While publications in the Far East have included articles on executive talent and management philosophies on "how to," less is written on the lifestyle of that executive. Few have reviewed the profile of the Asian executive as compared with some U.S. businesspersons. Therefore the intent of this statement —as an initial analysis of a much larger topic —is to offer a holistic profile of a selected number of Asian executives compared with similar U.S. counterparts. Our discussion is divided into the following: (1) lifestyle analysis; (2) education/career; and (3) some comments on personal characteristics.

-2 - Background For several years the Graduate School of Business at The University of Michigan has collected data on top U.S. executivesl as well as middle level executives,2 —the main U.S. group used for our comparison —as they prepare to replace the top Chief Executive, the President, or the Vice-President. Additionally, the Fitness Research Center of the University has a data file on lifestyles of executives, ranging from health risk appraisals to life satisfaction scales.3 A selected N of 249 U.S. executives (77 percent male) will be used as the U.S. reference sample. Information on Asian executives was collected during the summer of 1984. Both interviews and the identical U.S. questionnaires were used to collect data from Asian executives, for a usable N of 112 (76 percent male). LIFESTYLE ANALYSIS Executive Age All people carry three types of health risk age: chronological, appraised, and achievable. Chronological risk age is one's actual age as determined by day and year of birth. Appraised risk age is calculated through using the known relationships between lifestyle habits and the chances of dying as a result of those habits. To arrive at that decision all respondents completed a Health Risk Appraisal form, an accepted instrument for calculating the various risk ages. One's achievable age is the risk age one could attain if certain recommended changes in lifestyle habits would occur.

-3 - Asian executives in our sample had a mean chronological age of 32.2, and a median age of 31.7. Even though this age was less than comparable U.S. executives, Asians also had a significantly lower appraised age and a slightly lower achievable age; that is, because of a favorable lifestyle their appraised chances of dying were less than U.S. executives, as seen in the following mean comparisons: Chronological Age, Asian 32.2, U.S. 35.7; Appraised Age, Asian 28.4, U.S. 34.3; and Achievable Age, Asian 26.4, U.S. 31.5. Smoking and Drinking Westeners guess that Asians smoke more. The Asian executive sample disproves that generalization: 82.3 percent are non-smokers; 6.3 percent are ex-smokers; and only 11.4 percent currently smoke. That compares with 46.6; 27.7; and 25.7 percent of U.S. executives, respectively. Similar differences occur in alcohol consumption. Startingly —to U.S. businesspersons —84.8 percent of the Asians do not drink either beer, wine, or mixed drinks, versus 20.1 percent of the U.S. executives. Less smoking and drinking contribute to lowering the appraised age of the Asians, and as measured by health appraisal experts in the U.S., is considered a healthier lifestyle. Highway Safety Consciousness Asians drive automobiles far less than their Western peers. U.S. executives travel about double the number of miles —13,769 versus the Asians' 6,697 miles per year.

-4 - What is surprising is that whereas the U.S. is considered the automotive capital of the world, only 44 percent of U.S. executives use seatbelts 75 percent of the time as compared to 62.7 percent of the Asians, in part governed by regulations requiring seatbelts. We speculate that Asians often ride public transportation and when faced with more personal, self-decisions required in driving they are more cautious. Physical Activity Level Our opening statement included the observation that in the U.S. health clubs, health programs, and health spas are proliferating as a "wellness" and "health" emphasis grips both employers and employees. Such concern with health is not so evident in the East. Correspondingly, there is a lack of individual regular physical activity as based on this definition: Physical activity includes work and leisure activities that require sustained physical exertion such as walking briskly, running, lifting and carrying. The degree of physical activity for the two groups produced the following data: Little or No Physical Activity, Asian 19.5 percent, U.S. 6.4 percent; Occasional Physical Activity, Asian, 64.9 percent, U.S. 53.8 percent; and Regular Physical Activity of at least three times per week, Asian 15.6 percent, U.S. 39.8 percent. Body Weight Even a cursory glance at Asians suggest that few match the heavier weight of the Westener. Surely the Asian executives' height is shorter, yet even with that provision they are not overweight: 27 percent of the

- 5 - men and 16 percent of the women are more than 10 percent overweight versus the high 75 percent of the men and 50 percent of the female U.S. executives. The Asians have few weight concerns along with attendant cardiovascular problems. Over 50 percent feel they maintain a "right" body weight. Family History of Disease Only small differences were found in the number of parents of Asian executives who have died of heart attacks before the age of 60 (5 percent) as compared with U.S. executives' parents (7 percent) or in the number of Asians whose parents had diabetes, 13 percent versus 15 percent of the U.S. executives. The differences are not statistically significant and they suggest that Asians tend to have several of the common Western illnesses. Basic Health Measures There is support for the assertion that because of the increased emphasis on health analysis, U.S. executives are more informed about their personal health, for example, on such matters as cholesterol level and blood pressure. Only one Asian (1 percent) knew his cholesterol level and only fifteen (14 percent) of that group knew their blood pressure. For the U.S. executives 9 percent knew their cholesterol and 36 percent knew their blood pressure. It should be noted that it would be recommended that both groups of executives should be more knowledgeable of their cholesterol and blood pressure levels.

-6 - Physical Health Attitudes If one looks at the several preceding positive points regarding the Asian executive, it is somewhat of a surprise to learn that they have a less favorable perception of their health when compared with the U.S. sample. Data in response to this question follows: "Considering your age, how would you describe your overall physical health?" Completely Satisfied, Asian 11 percent, U.S. 40 percent; Quite Satisfied, Asian 61 percent, U.S. 53.3 percent; Somewhat Satisfied, Asian 22 percent, U.S. 6.3 percent; and Not Very Satisfied, Asian 4 percent, U.S. 0.4 percent. As laymen, we observe that the Asians in our sample —as based on our previous discussion —are in better shape than they think they are. What may be needed is an education program suggesting that many Asian executives currently follow rather positive lifestyle habits. Social Ties A Western perception of the East is that family and friends assume a preeminent role in life, more so than in the West. Interestingly —and limited to our sample of executives —Western executives give as high a ranking to family and friends as do their Eastern counterparts. Our specific question was this: "In general, how strong are your social ties with your family and friends?" Very Strong, Asian 21.5 percent, U.S. 32.5 percent; About Average, Asian 63.3 percent, U.S. 53.8 percent; and Weaker Than Average, Asian 13.9 percent, U.S. 13.7 percent. It is surprising to the authors that almost 50 percent more of the U.S. executives rate their relationship with family and friends "Very

-7 - Strong" —over that of their Asian peers. We conclude that U.S. executives receive at least as much social support from persons close to them as do the Asians. Stress A prolific number of books have recently been published which give suggestions and advice on handling stress. Bookshelves are filled with self-help books; to discuss any of them here is not our purpose. Stress is inevitable in all cultures —indeed that may be the most common denominator between businesspersons —and when not checked, through a personal coping mechanism, can lead to illness, with a corresponding decrease in productivity. A definitive list of stressers in the Far East has not been compiled, yet we are tempted to hypothesize that all businesspersons react similarly to common business stresses. Our findings are based on three questions. Most executives know of the Type A personality, the hard-driving, consumate perfectionist desiring to achieve all things within selfimposed limits. On a continuum between "strongly agree" (1) through "strongly disagree" (5) the Asian executives had a mean of 2.3; a median of 2.1; and a mode of 2. Those figures imply that 67 percent of the respondents classify themselves as hard-driving and time oriented. The complete analysis is in Table 1.

-8 - Table 1 HARD-DRIVING AND TIME ORIENTED Category Labels Asian Strongly agree 16.5 Agree 50.6 Neutral 22.8 Disagree 6.3 Strongly Disagree 3.8 100%* *Rounding will sometimes result in percentages greater or less than 100%. What gives additional support to the previous interpretation that Asian executives are under some stress is their response to this statement: "I find most jobs in my company (at my level) to be very stressful due to time pressures, work overload, role conflict, and role ambiguity." Using the same evaluative continuum as in the preceding question, the mean for this question was 2.4; the median 2.4; and the mode 2.0. Over half indicated "strongly agree" or "agree" to the statement about job stress. Table 2 JOB STRESS Category labels Asian Strongly agree 16.5 Agree 36.7 Neutral 30.4 Disagree 13.9 Strongly Disagree 2.5 100%

-9 - When one lives under time pressure, either self imposed or imposed from outside, an executive may feel rushed to complete tasks. Inevitably stress occurs in such a situation. Our interest was in that type of activity. Just over 60 percent of the Asian executives felt hurried in what they had to do and accomplish. The fact that only 15.2 percent of them disagreed with being rushed suggests they were either in a casual, non-tension position or had managed to cope with the pressures of time. Table 3 reveals whether they feel rushed to complete tasks. Table 3 RUSHED TO COMPLETE TASKS Category labels Asian U.S. Strongly agree 11.4 12.2 Agree 49.4 37.8 Neutral 24.1 40.7 Disagree 15.2 9.3 Strongly disagree 0.0 0.0 100% 100% Stress is not limited to the West. Pressures in a competitive business environment know no cultural boundaries, each person adapting to those pressures in order to avoid a rhythm of reoccurring illnesses. Overall Life Satisfaction More by way of summary and subjective personal assessment, one question attempts to measure executives' lifestyle satisfaction: "In general how satisfied are you with your life?" Completely Satisfied, Asian 10.4 percent, U.S. 4.5 percent; Quite Satisfied, Asian 61.0

- 10 - percent, U.S. 60.7 percent; Somewhat Satisfied, Asian 19.5 percent, U.S. 31.2 percent; and Not Satisfied, Asian 9.1 percent, U.S. 3.6 percent. When tying the above question in with another statement —"I am in control of my life" —there is a high positive correlation of.505. In other words, those who had high self control over their lives were also more satisfied with their life. Comparisons for both executive groups in response to the assertive statement of being in control of life are seen in Table 4. Table 4 AMOUNT OF CONTROL OVER LIFE Category Labels Asian U.S. Strongly agree 11.4 16.9 Agree 63.3 69.4 Neutral 20.3 8.9 Disagree 3.8 4.4 Strongly disagree _1.3 0.4 100% 100% EDUCATION/CAREER Level of Education The Asian executives participating in our study are well educated, a finding parallel to comparable U.S. executives and to other studies. While fewer Asians than U.S. executives have completed college, 64.9 percent of our sample did receive an undergraduate degree with 25.9 percent going on to graduate work. Our conclusion is that Asian executives are highly educated and that this trend will probably continue.

- 11 - Table 5 EDUCATION Education Level Asian U.S. Less than high school 3.6 0.1 High school graduate 12.6 2.2 Some college, no degree 18.9 16.1 Received undergraduate degree 64.9 81.6 Graduate degree 25.9 29.6 Major Field of Study In first position for an Asian undergraduate major is the area of Engineering (29 percent); followed by Science and Mathematics (27.4 percent); Business Administration (24.2 percent); and the Social Sciences (9.6 percent). Least majors were in the Humanities. Apparently, Asian executives consciously decided to pursue a professionally oriented degree at the undergraduate level. Those Asians who went on to an advanced degree gave equal value to two fields of study and slightly less to a third: Science and Mathematics, 33.4 percent; Business Administration, 33.3 percent; and Engineering, 25.9 percent. An emphasis on professionally oriented majors continues at the graduate level. Recommended Preparation for Work One of the valuable insights executives give to young students is what kind of schooling proves most useful in preparing for a career. Asians' advice to young people is based on the following question: "For the student who plans to follow an undergraduate degree with graduate/

- 12 - professional study, what would you recommend for an undergraduate major and for graduate work as the best preparation for a management career?" At the undergraduate level 40.8 percent would recommend business administration, followed by engineering at 26.5 percent. That ordering is identical to the U.S. executives. Additionally, both executive groups place less emphasis on the humanities, an area some feel should be more a part of business training. When making recommendations for graduate study, accounting in the field of business receives 47.5 percent of the recommendations. An even two-thirds of all Asians strongly recommended business administration as the graduate major, identical to the recommendations of their U.S. counterparts. Science and math was a distant second. No other areas of study were recommended for graduate work. Course Preparation Asian responses to the following question are interesting: "Assuming the study of business administration best prepares a young person for a career in general management, how important are the following courses as part of that preparation?" Our intent, as based on hindsight of the executives, was to determine which functional areas best prepare students for management careers. The executives gave the highest overall ranking to Business Communication, followed by Business Policy and Planning. U.S. executives also gave the highest position to Business Communication, but recommended Computer/Information Systems second. For Asians, relatively high rankings were also given to Finance; Business Economics and Public

- 13 - Policy; and Marketing. Statistics, Production/Operations; and Personnel/Industrial Relations received less emphasis. The complete tabulation for the thirteen courses is noted in Table 6. A conclusion to be drawn, and similar to that of the U.S. executive, is that in addition to an emphasis on highly important functional areas, courses which permit implementation of those functional areas receive high emphasis. Thus Business Communication, as a basic tool course, can give clarity and direction to functional areas which serve as a core of business adequacy. Table 6 COURSE PREPARATION RANKED BY ASIAN EXECUTIVES Business Communication Business Policy/Planning Finance Business Economics and Public Policy Marketing Computer/Information Systems Accounting Advertising/Sales Promotion Business Law International Business Personnel/Industrial Relations Statistics Production/Operations Mean 1.22 1.76 1.83 1.84 1.84 1.90 1.99 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.16 2.32 2.51 Very Important 1 80.0% 42.9 31.0 32.3 38.1 29.6 25.8 20.0 20.6 18.0 25.0 11.8 9.4 2... 18.0% 41.8 57.0 52.1 41.2 52.0 54.6 55.0 52.6 51.0 39.6 49.5 41.7 4 4.1% 2.0 1.0 2.1 2.0 5.2 6.0 6.2 2.1 5.4 7.3 Very Unimportant 5 2.1% 2.1 __1

- 14 - Career Progress Production/Operations and Marketing/Sales is where most Asian executives began their careers. And what is most interesting —as compared with U.S. executives who changed considerably from their initial jobs —is that many still continue in those same areas. Fastest Route to the Top. Two-thirds of the executives reported that Marketing/Sales was the fastest route to the top, agreeing entirely with the U.S. executive sample. Production/Operations ranked second followed by Computer/Information Systems. Concentration if Starting Career Over. Marketing/Sales was the favored area by nearly two-thirds of the Asian respondents. The same area was recommended by U.S. executives. Table 7 CAREER PATHS OF ASIAN EXECUTIVES Fastest If Major Area First Current Route Starting of Responsibility Job Job Up Over Production/Operations 22.5 12.2 20.6 17.1 Marketing/Sales 19.6 29.6 33.8 30.0 Finance/Accounting/Taxes 13.7 7.1 7.4 7.1 Computer/Information Systems 11.8 17.3 14.7 12.9 General Management/ Administration 10.8 11.2 8.8 8.6 Personnel/Industrial Relations 3.9 7.1 5.9 7.1 Research and Development' 2.9 3.1 1.5 5.7 Law - - - 7.1 Other 14.7 12.2 7.4 4.3 There is high agreement between the two cultural groups: both stress Marketing/Sales over nine other functional areas. By way of further

- 15 - comparison in another study (CEO's, Presidents, and Vice-Presidents) the top level executives' recommendations are in the area of General Management/Administration.4 We conclude that once executives have proven their high competence in distinct functional areas then a broader general management perspective becomes important. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS What personal characteristics do the Asian executives have in addition to the qualities of lifestyle and career/education patterns discussed previously? How do they compare with counterpart U.S. executives? ~Qex and Retirement Age Males made up 75.9 percent of the Asian sample, not too different from the comparable U.S. sample of 77 percent. Women appear to be moving into managerial positions, but further monitoring will have to occur to determine whether an upward trend continues, remains the same, or decreases. Both groups indicated planned similar retirement ages, Asians wishing to retire at 59.2, the mean, with a median of 59.9, as compared with the U.S. sample of 59.8 and 60.1, respectively. The Asians thought of retirement in terms of five-year intervals: most indicated age 55, 60, or 65.

- 16 - Order of birth Some sociologists feel that the order of birth within the family is significant. To analyze that argument is not our intent, rather to suggest that most executives in our study were either the first born or the middle child. Table 8 POSITION OF BIRTH Order of Birth Asian U.S. Only child 3.6 9.9 First child 38.7 36.1 Middle child 44.1 28.9 Last child 13.5 25.1 100% 100% Parental Income Numerous Asian executives came from modest surroundings; that same statement may be said of the U.S. sample. Most came from middle income homes (73 percent) followed by lower income (19.8 percent); and upper income homes (7.2 percent). Similar percentages are reflected in the parental homes of U.S. executives. Parental Occupation Mothers, in both executive groups, were overwhelmingly homemakers. And if there is a surprise it is that many of the fathers of the Asian executives held white-collar positions, namely, in the areas of officials and managers (30.5 percent). Similar data is seen in the U.S. sample, except for the larger number of fathers who were laborers (14

- 17 - percent). Regardless, many fathers in both cultures were in blue-collar jobs. A complete listing of other categories is found in Table 9. Table 9 OCCUPATION OF PARENTS Predominant Occupation Officials and Managers Professional Office and Clerical Skilled Crafts Technicial Sales Laborer Operative Service Worker Homemaker Other Farmer Asian Father Mother 30.5 3.0 17.1 7.1 12.4 3.0 9.5 1.0 8.6 - 7.6 -- 5.7 3.0 3.8 -- 2.9 2.0 1.0 80.8 1.0 -- U.S. Father 23.4 14.5 4.0 13.4 5.0 9.9 14.0 5.0 4.7.3.9 5.1 Mother 1.3 5.1 8.7.9.3 1.6 2.9.6 2.4 76.0.1 Spouse Marital status. Even though the median age of the Asian executive is relatively young, that fact alone does not account for the large number —through Western eyes —who are unmarried: 29.1 percent fall into that category as compared with only 8.0 percent of the U.S. executives. We conclude that issues as housing and financial concerns result in Asians marrying later in life. Those who did marry remain with their first spouse because an infinitesimally small, 0.9 percent, were in their second or third marriage.

- 18 - Table 10 MARITAL STATUS Marital Status Asians U.S. Never married 29.1 8.0 1st marriage 65.5 72.1 Live with someone but not married 0.9 0.8 Separated -- 1.4 2nd marriage 0.9 10.2 Divorced 2.7 5.9 3rd marriage 0.9 1.3 100% 100% Employment status of spouse. Nearly 60 percent of the Asian Executives' spouses work full time and 10 percent work half-time. The remaining 30 percent are not employed. We have little knowledge on the acceptability of Asian spouses working, for more do so than their U.S. colleagues. We surmise that there must be acceptability inasmuch as many spouses do work. At the management level of the persons included in this survey, work may be a necessity because of economic factors. Occupation of spouse. Nearly half of the spouses employed fall into the occupational category of the professional (42.3 percent); followed by office/clerical (23.1 percent); and managerial (17.3 percent). Importance of spouse's contribution. Each of the executives were given choices as to the value of their spouses' contribution to their success in business. Asians gave first position to a well-run home and to emotional support. In other words, activities by a spouse directly related to business such as participating in official company related

- 19 - activities; engaging in community related activities; or acting as a host/hostess received far less emphasis. What is important is the home. Problems in Economy Today and in Three Years Two parallel statements were answered by both management groups: "Please check the three most serious problems you feel present in our economy today and your estimate as to problems 3 years from now." Asians perceive inflation as the major current problem followed by interest rates and unemployment. They focused on financial concerns. U.S. executives realize the inroads made by other countries through productivity gains, hence, they give preeminent importance to the problem of low productivity, followed by unemployment and an unbalanced budget. Asians —perhaps sensing that productivity is less a problem in the Far East —give low productivity minimal concern. Table 11 PROBLEMS IN ECONOMY TODAY Serious problems in _economy today Inflation High interest rates Unemployment Global competition Unbalanced budget Other Government intervention Consumer confidence Employee unrest Low productivity Percentage of Asian executives listing issues as 1 of 3 major concerns 68.7 36.6 33.9 29.4 20.5 16.9 16.0 14.2 14.2 13.3 Percentage of U.S. executives listing issues as 1 of 3 major concerns 23.3 37.6 47.4 32.0 45.5 5.3 24.1 5.1 16.0 51.8

- 20 - Three years from now Asians still feel inflation will be the major concern, then agree with the U.S. executives that global competition will be an economic threat. Most frequently mentioned items in the category "other" was the concern of the year 1997 for Hong Kong. Comparisons of data for the two executive groups are found in Table 12. Table 12 PROBLEMS 3 YEARS FROM NOW Serious problems in economy 3 years from now Inflation Global competition Government intervention Unemployment High interest rates Other Unbalanced budget Consumer confidence Employee unrest Low productivity Percentage of Asian executives listing issues as 1 of 3 major concerns 51.7 35.7 28.5 25.0 22.3 18.7 14.2 13.3 13.3 11.6 Percentage of U.S. executives listing issues as 1 of 3 major concerns 38.4 42.7 30.3 26.2 32.1 5.6 47.6 11.6 20.2 34.5 SUMMARY PROFILE OF THE ASIAN EXECUTIVE Top Asian executives are predominantly male, but with women also assuming positions of leadership. "Youthful" well describes the executive inasmuch as the mean age is 32.2. Of these executives 84.8 percent are non-smokers whose lifestyle omits beer, wine, or mixed drinks. Those health habits result in their appraised risk age being four years less than their chronological age.

- 21 - Few drugs are used for medication. That same caution carries over to behavior on the highway inasmuch as nearly two-thirds of them use a seatbelt. While the fitness craze has hit the U.S. and some other Western countries, Asian executives engage in little strenuous physical activity. One can only hypothesize as to why such minimal physical activity, but they have few weight problems and few parents with disabling diseases as heart attacks and diabetes. Yet, they feel their health is not completely satisfying. A Western perception is that Asians in general have extremely strong social ties with family and friends. That assertion is true, but the category "Very Strong" relationship has a higher value with U.S. executives than with Asians. Stress is a part of their executive life, as agreed to by twothirds when using the criteria of time pressures and work overload. Those who are in firm control over their life are also more satisfied with their life. A major characteristic is that they are well educated, with a quarter going on to graduate school. Well prepared professionally for their positions at the undergraduate level, most major in engineering or in science and mathematics, followed by business administration. At the graduate level business administration rises to parallel importance with science and mathematics as a major concentration. Asian executives lay great stress on the sciences as career preparation. However, on reflection, they strongly recommend a business administration major at

- 22 - both the undergraduate and graduate level —for students planning on a career in management. While functional areas as Business Policy/Planning, Finance, and Business Economics and Public Policy are important, it is Business Communication which receives their major endorsement. A high 80 percent recommend knowing how to communicate, either in the oral or written mode, as a way to give clarity and persuasibility to the functional areas of business. Production/Operations is where most executives began their careers and only slowly moved out of that area into Marketing/Sales, Computer/ Information Systems, or General Management/Administration. When asked what they feel is the fastest route to the top, they recommend Marketing/Sales, and if starting their careers over, that same area receives their recommendation. For the relatively youthful executives retirement seems a long way off, most suggesting retiring at age 60. Many came from a family of several siblings, with a majority either first born or middle children. Their mothers were homemakers with only a few working in professional and managerial positions. Fathers were firmly represented in areas such as officials and managers, the professions, and office and clerical positions. Nearly a third are unmarried. Those who were married have spouses who work in professions; office/clerical duties; and managerial positions. And regardless of whether the spouse works or not, a large majority feel a well-run home and providing emotional support are values

- 23 - far in excess of spouses participating in direct business related activities. They consider their spouses important. Asian executives do not consider low productivity a serious concern, ranking that issue last out of ten. Western executives rank that issue first in their list of current concerns. What troubles Asians today is inflation, interest rates, and unemployment. Three years from now they still see inflation as a significant concern along with global competition, an issue now facing executives throughout the world.

- 24 - References 1. Bond, Floyd A., Hildebrandt, Herbert W., and Miller, Edwin L., The Newly Promoted Executive, Division of Research, Graduate School of Business, University of Michigan, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984. 2. Hildebrandt, Herbert W. and Miller, Edwin L., A Managerial Profile (in press), Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, University of Michigan. 3. Berlin, Jesse A. and Edington, D.W., "Predicting Physiological Parameters from Questionnaire Data," Proceedings of the Society of Prospective Medicine. 19:37-41, 1983. 4. Bond, et. al., op. cit., 1984.