EFFECTIVE DISTANCE OF URBAN HIGHWAY TRAVEL FOR SUPERMARKET SHOPPING TRIPS Clinton Louis Heiimbach A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Michigan 1963 Doctoral Committee: Professor John C. Kohl, Chairman Professor Ernest Boyce Doctor Bruce D, Greenshields Professor John Wo Hyde Doctor John Do Nystuen

To Alice, Kathy, and Roy, without whose encouragement this treatise would not have been possible. ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his appreciation to the members of the doctoral committee for their guidance and assistance: Doctor Bruce D, Greenshields, committee chairman, for his interest and valuable discussions throughout the investigation, and for the use of his Drivometer in the field investigation; Professor Earnest Boyce for his continuing interest and encouragement throughout the entire graduate program; Professor John Wo Hyde for his counsel and for first introducing the author to the concept of the orderly arrangement of cities; Professor John Do Nystuen for his invaluable advice and assistance, and for his contributing to the author's further understanding of cities and urban places; Professor John Co Kohl for his adding to the author's broad concept of transportation; and to Professor Parr for his willingness to act as a last minute replacement on the committee for Professor Kohlo Additional appreciation is expressed to the National Science Foundation, Consumers Power Company, and to the Engineering Faculty Development Loan Program for financial assistance during the preparation of the dissertationo The author is also indebted to: The University of Michigan Institute of Science and Technology for permission to use in this dissertation portions of the data collected under a research grant sponsored by the Institute during the summer of 1962; to the Kroger Company for permission to conduct shopper interviews in their four Ann Arbor stores; to Mr. Don Vasher, manager of the Kroger Store on Packard Road, for the assistance and help during the six day interview period at his store; and, to the Industry Program of the College of Engineering for their able preparation of the manuscripto iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.. o oooooooooooooooooo.................... iii LIST OF TABLES............................................ V LIST OF FIGURES. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000000000000 vii LIST OF APPENDICES ooo..... oo00 o oo oo o o o0 o oo 0 o 0 o oo xi CHAPTER Io INTRODUCTION oo.. 0oooooo00 00 oooo oooooo 00oooo 00. 1 Summary of Field Investigation...o o00 oo00000 1 The Nature of Urban Highway Facilities.......o 2 Function of Individual Travel Behavior Studies in Urban Highway Researcho 0o o0 0 o o o o 11 Related Travel Studies................. 000 0 0 o 13 Conclusion. 0 o o o o o o 0 0 o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0o o 0 0 o o 0 o o 16 II. ACCESSIBILITY AND URBAN MOVEMENT NOTIONS.......o 17 General Nomenclature...00 00000..0.. 00000..oO 17 Relation of Individual Travel Behavior to Accessibility, 0 0 o 0 o o0...................... 19 Accessibility, Travel Behavior, and Urban Land Use Patterns.,.. o o.00.00.0000 000000000 00. O 20 Role of Effective Distance in Movement-Location Theoryo o o 0o oo............ o o oo o o o o 26 Technical Concepts for Evaluating the Effective Distance of Highway Travelo0................. 31 IIIo MEASURING THE EFFECTIVE DISTANCE OF TRAVEL FOR SUPERMARKET SHOPPING TRIPSooo o0000000000000000 51 Statement of the Problemo 0o o.. o 0o00. o 0. 00 51 Research Methods 00oooooo00o00000000000000000 o 56 IVo DATA, ANALYSIS, AND CONCLUSIONS0o 0 0 0 O 0O 0 78 Data.oo..o.00000000.00.00000000o. 0o.00000000000 78 Analysis and Discussiono 0... o0o.o o0.. o0. o0 o 85 Conclusions o 00oo00000o000o.000000oo 000.00 000.00 114 APPENDICES.. 0000..000000.0.0..0000000000.0.0.00000.000000 118 BIBLIOGRAPHY..O...0000000000000.000 0000.00000000.00000000. 129 iv

LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Rural and Municipal Highway Mileage in the United States -1960...00 0. o 0......0OOOOO.. o 3 2 Municipal Highway Mileage in United States-1960o.o 4 3 Rural and Urban Vehicle-Miles in the United States1960o o...o o o o o o o o o o. o o o o o o o........ o........ 5 4 Criteria for the Functional Classification of the Urban Street System...,... o.....o,,,oo...o oo, 65 5 Sections of Urban Arterials Over iWVLich the Test Vehicle Was Operated in Ann Arbor, Michigan..,.,.o 73 6 Classification of Variables Recorded For the Home-Store-Home Supermarket Shopping Trips........ 75 7 Single-Purpose Automobile Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households by Sector-Zone..,,......... 77 8 Hourly Household Unit and Customer Interview Count....... o o o o o o o o o o o.......... o o o o o o o o o o o o o... o... o. 79 9 Summary of Single Purpose Shopping Trips by Mode of Transportation......,,....o......ooooo......ooo 80 10 Classification of Single Purpose Automobile Trips To Supermarket,,......,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,.......... 81 11 Sector-Zone Distribution of the Home Bases for Home-Store-Home Single Purpose Shopping Trips To Supermarket o..o.......o,,.... o o.....o o....... 81 12 Average Round-Trip Values by Sector-Zone for Variables Measured with Test Vehicle Between Shopper's Home and Supermarket.......o.. o.....o......,,.. 83 13 Example of Driveometer Data Collected for an Arterial Highway on a Typical Monday, July-August, 1962, Ann Arbor, Michigan..o................ 84 14 Average Driveometer Data for Turning Movements At Stadium Blvd-Packard Road Intersection, August, 1962, Ann Arbor, Michigan..,.,.,o............,.... 84 v

LIST OF TABLES CONT'D Table Page 15 Selected Highway Intersection Traffic Volumes, Ann Arbor, Michigan, oo,.......o..o.......o o 87 16 Example of Average Hourly Values for Parking Lot Driveometer Variables o o.......o o o............... 95 17 Indices of Driveometer Variables oo,...o........... 95 18 Average Daily Indices of Driveometer Variables for Parking Lot..................... o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 97 19 Indices of Driveometer Variables for Arterial Portions of the Ann Arbor Urban Street System,... 107 20 Indices of Driveometer Variables for Highway Turning Movements..................oo.......,..... 112 21 Indices of Driveometer Variables by Functional Street Classificationo,,,,...,,,,o,,,,,,,, 112 vi

LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Location of Supermarket One in Packard Road-East Stadium Blvd. Business District, Ann Arbor, Michigan...........o............................... 58 2 Location of Supermarket Two in Regional Shopping Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan....................... 59 3 Location of Supermarket Three in Community Shopping Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan o o........,... 60 4 Location of Supermarket Four in Broadway-Maiden Lane Business District, Ann Arobr, Michigan........ 62 5 Schematic Representation of Greenshields' Driveometer Installed in an Automobile, and the Variables the Unit Measures O... O..O O...O..o... o..... 67 6 Photograph of Driveometer Installed in the Test Car Used in the Collection of Field Data.,,..,,,,.. 67 7 Photograph of Driveometer Installed in Test Car Showing Data Box on Back Seat Directly Behind the Drivero. o......................................... 68 8 Photograph of Interior of Test Car Showing Data Box Mounted on Rear Seat, Mirror Mounted on Rear of Front Seat Provides Reflected Image of Highway Behind Test Car for Camera Mounted on Deck Behind Rear Seat ooooooo...........................oo...... 68 9 Photograph of the Steering Wheel and Dashboard of the Test Vehicle oo,...,o.................o o..o..... 70 10 Photograph of Data Recording Box with Top and Sides Removed............................................oo 70 11 Plates I and IIo Photographs of Interior of Data Recording Box Showing Camera in Position to Photograph Display Panel......o o.. o...o..........o.o.. 71 12 Plate I. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Acclerator Applications, including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.................... 89 vii

LIST OF FIGURES CONT'D Figure Page 12 Plate IIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Steering Wheel Reversals, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket....ooooo............ooo..................... 89 12 Plate IIIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Cumulative Change of Speed in Miles Per Hour Times Four, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each SectorZone to the Supermarket........................... 90 12 Plate IVo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Change of Compass Direction in Radians Times Ten, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket,...o.... o...o..................o o 90 12 Plate V. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Total Time in Motion, Including Supermarket Parking and U;iparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket...,,,..,,o,,. 91 12 Plate VIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Brake Applications, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket..................... 91 12 Plate VIIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Distance Traveled in Miles Times One Hundred, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.......... o o o o o............................. o o o o o 92 12 Plate VIIIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Elapsed Trip Time in Seconds, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.. o o o.... o 92 viii

LIST OF FIGURES CONT'D Figure Page 12 Plate IXo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Driver Actions, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, from each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.OOOOOOOOOOOOOO...........OOO OOOO.........OOO 96 12 Plate Xo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Driver Actions, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.................. 96 12 Plate XIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Driver Actions, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking and Adjusted to the Weekly Average Highway Traffic Conditions, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket..00............ 0............0.....00.....00.. 99 12 Plate XII. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Rate Per Minute for Driver Actions, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarketo...o. 99 12 Plate XIIIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Rate Per Minute for Driver Actions, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarketo. 100 12 Plate XIVo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Rate Per Minute For Driver Actions, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking and Adjusted to the Weekly Average Highway Traffic Conditions, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket,,o...........o................... 100 12 Plate XVo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Time and Vehicle Motions, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket0............... 102 ix

LIST OF FIGURES CONT'D Figure Page 12 Plate XVIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Distance Rate of Covariability, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.........o0000.000 O OOO000.00.0.000 0 102 12 Plate XVIIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Household Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Distance Rate of Covariability, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.............................................000000000 103 12 Plate XVIIIo Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Distance Rate of Covariability, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking and Adjusted to the Weekly Average Highway Traffic Conditions, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket............0o o o ooooooooooo...... 103 13 Plate I. Variation of Driver Actions by Hour of the Day For Trips From Households in Sector-Zone 43 to Supermarket and Returno......o o o............ 105 13 Plate IIo Variation of the Time Rate of Driver Actions by Hour of the Day For Trips From Households in Sector-Zone 43 to Supermarket and Return0. 105 13 Plate IIIo Variation of the Sum of Time and Vehicle Maneuvers by Hour of the Day For Trips From Households in Sector-Zone 43 to Supermarket and Return0...................................... 106 13 Plate IV. Variation of the Distance Rate of Covariability of Vehicle Maneuvering Alternatives by Hour of the Day For Trips From Households in Sector-Zone 43 to Supermarket and Return.......... 106 14 Plate Io Variation of the Time Rate of Driver Actions by Hour of the Day For the Arterial Portion of Highway Trips From Households in SectorZone 43 to the Supermarket and Return..o.00000.... 110 x

LIST OF FIGURES CONT'D Figure Page 14 Plate IIo Variation of the Distance Rate of Covariability by Hour of the Day For the Arterial Portion of Highway Trips From Households in Sector-Zone 43 to the Supermarket and Return........,.................................... 110 15 Evaluation of the Technique For Estimating Arterial Driver Actions, Using a Plot of Actual Versus Estimated For Individual Trips.........,.. 115 16 Evaluation of the Technique for Estimating Arterial Driver Actions, Using a Plot of Actual Versus Estimated For Groups of Trips Using Indentical Arterial Routes.........o............. 115 17 Street Name and Location Map, Ann Arbor, Michigano POCKET 18 Functional Street and Highway Map, Ann Arbor, Michigan...........................................o POCKET 19 Map of Population Distribution For Ann Arbor, Area,,... o o...................o.o. POCKET 20 Map of Generalized Land Use, Ann Arbor Area,,.oo,,, POCKET 21 Origins of Single-Purpose Auto Trips to Supermarket POCKET xi

LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A Shopping Travel Inventory Form,.................. 119 B Weather Matrix for Characterizing Climatic C ondit i ons s. o. o.,...... o o. o. e o o e C. o. 123 C Schematic Arrangement of Keyboard Control Panel.,, 127 D Schematic Arrangement of Display Panel for CounterRegister Dials,,.......................... o.., 128 x i1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The growth of our cities and the expansion of our urban highway system indicate that people prefer to live in built-up areas and to travel within these areas by private automobile. For this privilege, we are now spending billions of dollars for the construction of an urban highway system. Billions more have been earmarked for future construction. Additional millions have been spent to study the broad patterns of travel movement in major metropolitan areas throughout the United States, In spite of this willingness to pay for urban highways, we have not solved the problem of urban movement, Any comprehensive planning solution to urban transportation problems will require a more fundamental knowledge of individual travel behavior in relation to land use patterns and the highway network than is presently available. The field investigation which is a part of this study examines individual highway travel linkages between residential and one type of commercial land use. The investigation is a step in the direction in which future urban travel research should move. Summary of Field Investigation The problem investigated is an individual travel behavior study that deals with the manner in which the automobile driver uses the urban highway network between his home and a retail store in order to satisfy a demand which cannot be fulfilled within his own household, Given a demand for shopping at a particular supermarket, the investigation made -1

-2measurements of the driver responses to the highway route that the shopper chose when driving to the supermarket, and determined the effective distance) expressed in units of driver actions and vehicle motion, which spatially separated the supermarket from the shopper's homeo Using units of effective distance, the study shows that an increase in effective distance from the store results in a decrease in customer contacts at the supermarket, and that this relationship is mathematically functionalo The investigation also indicates that sections of urban arterial streets can be characterized in units of effective distance, and suggests a methodology for calculating the effective distance between any two points. The Nature of Urban Highway Facilities The urban highway system is functionally related to the urban land use patterno Cities consist of a bundle of specialized activities which have varying land requirements. This results in the spatial separation of these activities into differential land uses. These specialized activities must have interconnections through communications or the physical movement of people and goods. The highway and motor vehicle is one methodof linking land uses by means of actual movement. Improving the quality of highways and increasing the comfort and operating characteristics of motor vehicles result in improved communication between activities geographically disjointed but functionally interwoven. The magnitude of this effort to communicate and interact in urban areas is displayed by the size, cost, and complexity of the highway facilities which we have constructed and the enormity of the travel effort expended in operation over these facilitieso

The Urban Highway System: Size and Travel Thereon The streets and roads which comprise the urban highway system are composed of a relatively few miles of high service value arterial highways on which are accumulated nearly one-fourth of all United States vehicle-miles in both urban and rural areas. The remainder of the urban system, which is a major portion of the total, is functionally oriented in some degree toward providing local accesso Table 1 shows that municipal highway mileage comprises only 12% of the total in the United States. A gross measure of the functional TABLE 1 RURA-L AND MUNICIPAL HIGHWAY MILEAGE IN THE UNITED STATES-1960 1,2 Rural Municipal - L Miles 3,120,000 430,000 3,550,000 Percent of Total 88 12 100 importance of these 430,000 municipal miles can be obtained by examing the type of pavement surface, The higher the type of surface provided, the more important is the travel movement functiono Table 2 below indicates that over 91% of all municipal highways have at least a minimum wearing surfaceo The medium type surface classification would normally be adequate for low density residential subdivisions, while the high 1U, So, Department of Commerce, Bureau of Public Roads, Highway Statistics: 1960 (1962), po 164o 2Ibid., po 144. A municipality is defined as a population center including cities, boroughs, villages, and towns (Except New England).

-4type surfaces would be reserved for the routes which are the more important carriers of traffic. TABLE 2 MUNICIPAL HIGHWAY MILEAGE IN UNITED STATES-19601 Classified by Type of Surface Nonsurfaced Surfaced Total Low Type Med Type High Type Miles 38,000 80,000 133,000 178,000 430,000 Percent of Total 8 5 19 31 41 5 100 The municipal extensions of the principal inter-county and intra-county highway routes total nearly 50,000 miles, with 35,000 of these miles being included as a part of the Federal-Aid System. The inescapable conclusion is that the major arterial link-ages in municipal areas form. but a small part of the urban system and a negligible part of the total United States highway system. Despite this small mileage in urban areas, the level of usage of the urban system causes it to accumulate almost one-half of vehicle-miles in the United States as shown. in Table 3. Empirical studies have indicated that at least one-half of these vehicle-miles in urban areas will be amassed on arterial highways comprising less than 12% of the entire urban system. Thus 1o4% of the total United States highway mileage carries nearly 25% of the total United States vehicle-miles 1 Ibid pP 165.

-5TAB3LE 3 RURAL AND URBAN VEHICLE-MILES IN THE UNITED STATES-1960 1,2 (Million Vehicle-Miles) Rural Urban Total.iicle-Miles 387,000 332,000 719,000 Percent of Total 54 46 100 Considering the magnitude of vehicle-miles by urban movement alone, a properly balanced highway research program should include study of the characteristics of urban travel behavior,.The Urban Highway System: Planning, Financing, and Public Policy The provision of highway service is a joint function of the state and federal governments. Thus planning, determination of spatial location, financing, and expenditure of funds for highway development become matters of public policy. Governmental agencies responsible for highways have been spending increasingly larger sums of money each year in order to supply additional or improved highway service. These increased expenditures have been in direct response to a growing public demand for private travel movement. This intensified demand for highway travel is a consequence of a nationwide population growth, an increased desire by people to live in cities, and an increasedper capita use of motor vehicles. The estimated current rate of highway expenditures for all units of governments- federal, state, and local- is slightly over twelve billion 1 Ibid., p. 80. Ibid., p. 144. An urban area is defined as an area including and adjacent to a municipality or other urban place having a population of 5,000 or more with boundaries fixed by the State highway department and approved by the Bureau of Public Roadso

-6dollars per year, or about seven per cent of all government expenditures. Since present highway financing is on a pay-as-you-go basis, total highway revenue will be approximately equal to expenditures. The twelve billion dollars of highway revenue is also about seven per cent of total governmental revenue.1 In 1960, 10.74 billion dollars were expended on highways by all levels of government. This amount of money was larger than the sums spent by goverment on postal service, public welfare, hospitals, health, police, local fire protection, sanitation, natural resources, parks and recreation, housing and community development, or veterans' services. The 10.74 billion dollars was exceeded only by the 47~5 billion spent for foreign aid and national defense, and the 19,4 bil2 lion spent for education. The current rate of spending for highways in urban areas is estimated to be about 3.0 billion dollars. Of this amount 2.2 billion is allocated for capital improvements and the rest for maintenance. The money for capital outlays includes funds for 6,000 miles of urban extensions of the Interstate System and additional funds for the 29,000 miles of the Federal-Aid Primaryand Secondary Systems. If the Interstate System is completed in 1971 as originally planned- and there is considerable doubt that it will be- about one half of the estimated cost of 40.0 billion dollars will have been spent in urban areas. Federal-Aid Acts already enacted have also authorized the expenditure of 5.4 billion dollars for UoS., Department of Commerce, Bureau of Public Roads Tables: November, 1961 quoted in Automobile Manufacturers Association, Automobile Facts.andFigures: 1962 (Detroit: Automobile Manufacturers Association, 1962), p-57, US., Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Summary of Governmental Finances: 1960, G-GF60-Noo 1 (1961), po14.

-7upgrading the municipal extensions of the Federal-Aid Systems. This money is to be spent at the rate of 0.45 billion per year from 1961-72. Planning studies made by the Bureau of Public Roads indicate that the Interstate System will be adequate for the estimated traffic volumes until 1974. The Federal-Aid Systems will be adequate for the estimated traffic of 1972, the same year that the modernization program is completed. In additional planning studies of highway needs through 1984, the Bureau estimates that another 5-.5 billion dollars will be required in urban areas over the period from 1965-84.1 The immensity of the sums of money presently being spent or planned for future expenditure for highways in urban areas staggers the imagination. On the basis of an expressed public demand, we as a nation, through governmental policy decisions, are allocating billions of dollars from our national income to the construction of urban highway facilities whose pattern will change and mold the configuration of our cities for the foreseeable future, and whose effects on the city are not too well known. The magnitude of these expenditures alone would seem to justify spending at least a small part of this money in research on urban travel behavior so that the effects of these urban highways on our cities could be more accurately predicted. 1U.S., Bureau of Public Roads, Needs of Highway Systems, 1955-84 (1955), pp. 14, 18 and 19.

-8The Urban Highway System: Movement Problems Transportation problems in our larger cities are horrendous, complicated, and are likely to grow worse in the futureo Moreover, the traffic congestion alters the mobility of movement along the linkages interconnecting various land uses. This has the effect of altering the competitive position of many urban activities. The statement that a movement problem exists in our cities is supported by an extensive list of studies and observations made by students of the urban scene. Owen's documented report on metropolitan traffic problems maintains that the "inability to overcome congestion and to remove obstacles to mobility threaten to make the city an economic liability rather than an assetol Owen also noted that the overtaxing of transport facilities is tending to have dire repercussions on the city which these self-same transport facilities made possibleo In another publication, Owen commented that there was no doubt about the overwhelming desire of people to live in cities and to travel by private automobile but it is this very choice that is "destroying both the benefits of cities and the advantages of the private car."2 Tunnard and Reed, commenting on traffic and parking problems in regional cities, observed that in spite of the fact that modern, high-speed highways were a major innovation of Wilfred Owen, The Metropolitan Transportation Problem (Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1956), po 1, Reproduced by permission of the publisher. 2 Wilfred Owen, Cities in the Motor Age (New York: The Viking Press, 1959), po3o Reproduced by permission of the publishero

-9the present era, they "have often created as many new problems as those they were built to solve o" Public officials in Los Angeles, the city which is presumed to have solved the highway movement problem, have suggested that the saturation point in the use and operation of private automobiles has been reached in their city and that business is being driven away from the area due to serious traffic conges-ton.' With the widespread attention being given to urban movement problems today, further documentation that a problem exists seems unnecessaryo The problems of urban movement noted above are likely to grow worse. Total United States population is increasing and the major portion of this increase is settling in the peripheral sections of our citieso In 1960, nearly 70% of the total population of 179 million resided in urban places.3 By 1980, it is conservatively estimated that three out of four persons of the nation's total of 245 million will be living in cities and built-up areas. Not only are total motor vehicle registrations increasing, but so are vehicle registrations per capitao In 1960 there were 1 Christopher Tunnard and Henry Hope Reed. American Skyline: The Growth and Form of Our Cities and Towns (New York: American Library of World Literature, 1956), po 186o Axel Olson, "The Problem of Decentralization in Metropolitan Areas," Proceedings, 1st Annual University of California Conference on City and Regional Planning (Berkeley: The Conference, 1953), po 17o 3 U.So, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of USo.: 1962, Table 13, po 21. 4 Wilbur Smith and Associates, Future Highways and Urban Growth (New Haven: Wilbur Smith and Associates, 1961), p. iii.

-10a total of 73~8 million motor vehicle registrations, or one vehicle for every two and one-half persons, By 1980 it is estimated that there will be a total of 120 million vehicles registered bringing the per capita ratio to one vehicle for every two persons2 These predicted increases in people and motor vehicles in urban areas will produce an increase in the volume and intensity of traffic along the highway routes interconnecting the cityo There is agreement that urban traffic congestion will be of greater magnitude in the future than it is at the presento The structure of urban movement is extremely complex, For example, changes in highway capacity have produced measurable effects on land use, the market value of land, agricultural production, tax revenues, traffic patterns, industrial location, retail business activity, and community growtho3 All of these effects are related to changes in movement caused by altering the friction of travel between land useso At the present time we have insufficient knowledge to permit us to make estimates of the changes in the factors listed above due to assumed variations in highway capacity, The intricacy of the interrelationships that exist in the total movement system lead to the conclusion that a more minute examination of particular parts of the total system is necessaryo Numerous studies of aggregate travel movement have been made in cities throughout the UoSo These studies now need to be supplemented with behavioristic 1 Statistical Abstract of U.So: 1962, p. 561. 2 Smith and Associates, p. 29. 3 National Research Councilo Highway Research Board, Economic Impact of Highway Improvement, A Report of Conference Proceedings of March 10-19, 1957 (Washington: 1957), (Its Special Report 28), ppo 1-88o

-11investigations that will indicate the motivation for travel while at the same time specifying in detail land uses and movement characteristics, A comprehensive understanding of parts of the total system may be the key to an understanding of the movement system in its entirety. Function of Individual Travel Behavior Studies In Urban Highway Research Urban highway research should attempt to develop information about the organization of urban activities and the position of the highway in supporting these activities, The key to this relationship is the travel movement pattern of the highway userso The role of the behavioristic travel study is to relate the urban structure, in terms of land use activ — ities, to travel purpose and travel movementO Using survey procedures, detailed information is obtained which defines the functional relation between travel purpose, land use, and the highway travel linking each of these land uses. Thus the survey data must specify the sequential pattern of movement, type of urban establishments visited, and the trip purposes associated with each stopo All modes of travel must be recorded as well as precise routes. The terminal problems at the beginning and end of the movement must be determined as well as any mid-trip locations where there is a change in mode of travel. This detailed information is necessary in a first approach to the problem, The analysis of the data collected proceeds on the basis that the trip purpose information will help to define the motivation for the travel. The land use activities visited during travel movement are the complement of the trip purposeo But in addition, the land use activities at the establishments where travel stops are made are also indicative of the

-12utility of that stopo Collectively, the functions of the establishments represent the total trip utilityo The particularized data on actual movement is needed to characterize the friction of travel between the establishments visited. In essence, the empirical data collected represents the gross utility of the trip and the disutility of movement. The analyst can now proceed to identify and classify types of travel movement, make measurements, establish quantitative functional relationships, and draw conclusionso Finally, he can develop empirical abstractions concerning the urban structure and the movement system which can be compared with existing movement theoryo The field investigation which is a part of this thesis in an individual travel behavior study that concerns itself primarily with the disutility of travel between urban establishmentso This disutility has sometimes been expressed in geometric units of distance measured along'the highway route linking the establishments, or sometimes as the airline distance connecting the two activitieso It has been recognized that units of land distance often do not adequately characterize either the friction or disutility of travelo The term friction of travel includes the numerous factors which tend to oppose or discourage movemento The effect of these friction factors is to require the expenditure of energy for movemento The contribution of this study is to show that actual units of highway distance can be physically expressed in units of automobile driver actionso This driver action distance is also shown to be functionally related to customer contacts for a supermarket.

l53Related Travel Studies The bulk of the information available today on urban travel patterns has been derived from data collected in comprehensive origin-anddestination studies conducted in cities throughout the United Stateso These studies constitute the major research effort on urban travel patterns by highway and traffic engineers, The information has been summarized in numerous publications including that of Schmidt and Campbello These studies have contributed much to our present knowledge of the characteristics of urban travel. But at the same time we must realize that this type of empirical investigation has four inherent limitations: (1) the functional interrelationships between trip purpose, land use, and travel routes are not made clear because of deficiencies in the data collected; (2) the information gathered is attempting to portray the entire movement system and at best, only aggregate observations can be made concerning large groups of people; (3) the O-and-D study in point of time always applys plto a past situation and therefore can best be used to describe travel at the time the study was made; and (4), the empirical information collected is representative of the particular spatial arrangement of functions within the city studied, The difficulties noted in (1) and (2) above are problems involving survey procedureo Precise locations for origins and destinations are often not given, even with recourse to the original datao Thus specific 1Robert Eo Schmidt and Mo Earl Campbell, Highway Traffic Estimation (Saugatuck, Connecticut: Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic Control, 1956), pp 8-170.

-14land uses cannot be identified, The eight classifications for trip purposes are often too gross to identify the trip motivational Moreover, there are no provisions for recording multiple-purpose trips. It is also difficult to evaluate the friction of travel since the precise route followed is not recorded nor are terminal problems investigated. The latter includes parking maneuvers, parking charges, and walkingO Since walking trips are excluded from the survey, travel either entirely or partially by this means is not recordedo The problems noted in this paragraph could have been overcome by conducting a few detailed studies to accompany the broader objective of the basic 0-and-D studyo Two more recent pieces of research in this field are worth notingo In a Chicago study, some sixty land use classifications at the origin and destination of each trip were recordedo The classifications were sufficiently detailed that in the case of retail shopping trips, basic store types could be differentiatedo2 In a San Diego study, the travel characteristics of two subdivisions were analyzed in detail03 Both of these works are steps in the direction toward a more complete understanding of the basic movement problem0 Other than the O-and-D studies and the investigations by Hall and Lynch, there is little travel behavior research reported in the i Bureau of Public Roads, Manual of Procedures for Home Interview Traffic Study: Revised Edition (October, 1954), po 34. 2 John To Lynch, "Home Interview Surveys and Related Research Activities," National Research Council0 Highway Research Board Bulletin, 224 (1959), p- 85 3 Edward Mo Hall, "Travel Characteristics of Two San Diego Subdivision Developments," National Research Councilo Highway Research Board Bulletin, 203 (1958)o pp 1-19o

-15technical literatureo The Highway Research Board, an agency of the Engineering Division of the National Research Council, acts as a national clearing house for the publication and dissemination of technical reports on highway research activitieso Bibliographies published by this agency indicate that the bulk of the urban traffic research has been both empirical and facility-oriented. The highway impact studies published by the Highway Research Board and noted in this section on page 1.0 did t2ke into account some of the spatial effects when a new highway was con — structed, or an existing one was modernizedo But there was no attempt to develop a structural basis which would explain these effectso Important contributions to travel behavior notions have been made by other disciplineso Garrison and Marts investigated business establishments both before and after changes were made in the highway system serving these establishmentso Observations were then made concerning modifications in the business location structure subsequent to the highway changeso A theoretical presentation by Mitchell and Rapkin portrayed traffic as a function of land use and developed several means of obtaining information on urban travel behavior,2 Troxel's theory on the demands for the movement of people suggests that individuals attempt to maximize the returns from travel over the period of time spent in accomplishing the purposes of the travel 3 William Lo Garrison and Marion Eo Marts, Geographic Impact of Highway Improvement, edo William Lo Garrison and Others, Studies of Highway Development and Geographic Change (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1959), ppo 101-14. Robert Bo Mitchell and Chester Rapkin, Urban Traffic: A function of Land Use (New York: Columbia University Press, 1954), po 76~ 3 Emery Troxel, Economics of Transport (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955), pp. 151-55o

_l6The citations noted in this section are the major research efforts on urban travel behavior where the topic investigated deals specifically with transportation. The paucity of information and research in this area indicates the need for further investigative worko Conclusion As a nation, we may be committing some tragic mistakeso We are spending, and are prepared to spend in the future, billions of dollars for urban highway facilities with the expectation of relieving traffic congestiono But in planning these facilities, we are not able to estimate their effects on the urban structure because of lack of detailed information on the manner in which people moveo With extensive construction and modernization programs for urban highways already under way, we are most certainly changing the present configuration of our cities and establishing patterns for the futureo But what this pattern will be we cannot stateo There is no apparent lack of willingness by people to pay for these facilities-only a lack of allocation of funds to the needed researcho The predicted growth of cities and the projected increase in the use of motor vehicles in urban places makes the need for this research much more urgent

CHAPTER II ACCESSIBILITY AND URBAN MOVEMENT NOTIONS The previous chapter examined the important position of individual travel behavior studies in furthering our empirical knowledge of the relation between the highway system and the specialized activities on urban lando This chapter continues by introducing some terminology and then relating a behaviorial study to accessibility conceptso Since the latter term has a variety of meanings, some standard definitions are adopted. Next, it is shown that the ability to measure the effective distance between two points is a structural assumption of all urban movement theory. Finally, the technical factors influencing effective highway distance are considered. General Nomenclature Accessibility and movement structure involve additional terminology which should be made clearo An urban area consists of a group of specialized activities. These activities, normal and appropriate to cities, are the actions, operations, and processes which produce goods and services. A good is any item of real or personal property which human beings desire and a service is an accomodation demanded by the public. These goods and services have the quality of satisfying human needs and thus possess utility. The specialized activities are functionally divided into broad groups. One is a firm and is usually thought of as a business designation. The other is a household and is a residence or homeo The functions of firms and households are conducted at specific locations called establishments. The desire by people in cities to have contacts and -17

-18interaction at establishments spatially separated from them is the source of a travel demando A trip purpose is defined by the functions carried on at the establishment visited and the satisfaction obtained therein is the trip utility of that stop. The actual movement to other establishments creates linkages between the various specialized activitieso The spatial arrangement of these activities determines the functional land use patterno Physical movement between establishments cannot be accomplished without the expenditure ofenergyy wThichis alternately termed travel effort, travel cost, or the disutility of displacement Factors causing this expenditure of energy are collectively labeled as the friction of travel. The term distance will for the moment be construed as encompassing all possible measures and units describing the spatial separation between two pointso Given a firm occupying a particular establishment, the various distances which people are willing to travel to the establishment for the utility located there marks out a contributory area, the radial extent of which is called the range of the good or service produced by the firm. The outermost limit of this radial distance from the establishment is denoted by the maximum range and is determined by the greatest distance which people are willing to travelo Beyond this maximum distance either the cost is too high because of the travel effort involved or there is a closer competing source for the utility provided by the particular good or serviceo The minimum range or threshold circumscribes an area around the establishment which includes the minimum number of customers necessary to insure the economic operation of the firmo

-19Relation of Individual Travel Behavior To Accessibility The prior chapter indicated that a behavioristic investigation of travel movement elicits information from the individual which identifies the reason or motivation for a trip thus permitting the assignment of a particular purpose to ito The place where this purposive trip starts is a point source of demand for transportation. The terms trip purpose and trip demand are considered to be interchangeable on the assumption that the trip purpose defines the utility of the trip and that the trip demand indicates a willingness to pay for this utility in terms of the travel effort associated with the contemplated movement. Trip utility and travel effort are thus related in a schedule senseo Assuming that travel effort is directly related to travel distance, the implication of the demand schedule is that each trip purpose in the schedule presupposes a maximum aggregate travel distance or maximum range of movemento Thus a trip purpose or a trip demand always has associated with it a particular utility and a maximum range of movement, The relationship between trip purpose and travel distance has been verified by studies made of comprehensive origin-destination data collected in major cities throughout the United Stateso, In conclusion it should be noted that an actual travel demand is a function of an individual's evaluation of the existing opportunities 1 For example see Detroit Metropolitan Area Traffic Study, Part I (Lansing: Speaker, Hines and Thomas, 1955), Table 42, po 125,

-20for movement that are included within the spatial boundaries established by the maximum range for this travel demando The notions involved in opportunity for movement revolve around concepts of accessibility. Hence individual travel behavior and ideas pertaining to accessibility are inseparably linkedo Accessibility, Travel Behavior, And Urban Land Use Patterns The literature on urban studies is replete with definitions and descriptions of accessibility as it relates to travel movement and land use, Many of these descriptions have special meanings to the authors within the context of their studieso Running through these varied notions of accessibility however are several consistent themes, Because of the growing importance of understanding the urban structure and its transportation system, an increasing number of scholars have felt the necessity of identifying these central ideas in the accessibility concepts in order to provide some uniformity to an otherwise confused situationl,2 Since accessibility, travel behavior, and land use are interrelated, the three topics should be discussed togethero However, the material is organized around concepts of accessibility. Accessibility Notions Accessibility is similar to a coin with each face conveying a different picture. Yet the two faces are complementary in forming a 1 John D. Nystuen, "A Theory and Simulation of Intraurban Travel," Paper Prepared for Symposium on Quantitative Methods in Geography, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Chicago, May 5-6, 1960o 2 Wo Ro Tobler, "Studies in the Geometry of Transportation," Paper prepared for a Transportation Georgrphy Study, Transportation Center, Northwester University, Octo 31, 1962o

-21single entity. One side of the accessibility coin is thought of as the opportunity or potential for movement, This movement is within specified limits provided by a designated mode or modes of transportation between a given point and all other placeso Since the emphasis in this study is on urban areas and traffic problems, the "displacement opportunity provided" is limited to people, physical goods, and services that are transportable by any of the usual modes of travel found in urban places.o The specified limit may be an arbitrary one such as a political or geographic boundary; or it may be a behavioristic limit similar to the maximum range of travel associated with the contributory area around an urban function, The other side of the accessibility coin is the movement faceo Here the emphasis is on the assumed or actual displacement that results from the potential on the other coin faceo Displacement is expressed as the friction of travel or as the magnitude of travel effort, Since many travel demands tend to be repetitive with time, it may be more meaningful to express the travel effort over an appropriate time period, and relate it to the relevant displacement opportunity for a similar periodo Within the general framework of these concepts of accessibility there are several special meanings. These are discussed in the paragraphs which follow. Locational Accessibility Given a reference point and a specific mode of travel, locational accessibility defines the lineal extent or spatial expanse from Ibid.,po 30, Tobler quantifies this concept of accessibility by cumulatively adding the relevant items for which a displacement opportunity is provided,

-22this reference point for interlocational travel opportunitieso The idea presented here is somewhat analogous to the concept of outright physical access, This special meaning has no associated travel purpose and hence no limitation on the range of movement other than the transportation facility itself, or some arbitrary limit established by the individual using the term, For example it is possible for people to travel by subway from the Battery in New York City to 212th St. With respect to the Battery, 212th St. is locationally accessible by subway, On the other hand one might be interested in the opportunities for movement by streets and highways from every point within the New York Metropolitan Area to the intersection of Lexington Avenue and 42nd St. The emphasis in locational accessibility.as indicated by the examples, is most often on the land served, by a particular transportation facility. Aggregate Accessibility Given a specific point within a city, the aggregate accessibility at the given point is the sum total of all opportunities for travel by all modes of transportation from (to) every point within the city to (from) the given pointo This type of accessibility can also be expressed as the potential for movement within the city from all other points to a given point. Since the publication of Haig's theory of urban organization, it has been accepted that if a city encompasses an area approximating a circle, the greatest aggregate accessibility is at 1Robert Mo Haig, Major Factors in Metropolitan Growth and Arrangement: Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs, Vo IT (New York: The Regional Survey Commission, 1927), po 38o

-23the center of the city and the accessibility of any other point away from the center is a lesser value. Accessibility is presumed to be directly related to site rent and inversely related to aggregate travel costso In moving away from the center of the city, there is a decrease in accessibility, a decrease in site rent, and an increase in aggregate city-wide travel costso The urban activities which occupy land at the center of the city will have to pay the highest site rents in the city but the total travel costs for the city to that same point will be a minimum. Conversely, site rents at the periphery of the city will be the lowest, accessibility the least, and total travel costs the highesto This notion of accessibility is used to explain the pattern of land use that develops within a cityo Urban activities are viewed as competing with each other for the relative spatial positions they occupy on the basis of their efficiency in extracting economic utility from any given site. This latter efficiency then determines the rent-paying ability of that activity. The efficiency of an activity to extract economic utility from a site depends in part on the internal operating characteristics of the activity and the intensity with which it can use the site. For example, a jewelry store can make much more intense use of the land it occupies than a furniture store cano The efficiency also depends on the extent to which any given activity can utilize the aggregate accessibility of a site when measured against the travel requirements implied from the other urban activities interconnected with the given function at the siteo Land uses occupying highly accessible sites- and able to pay high site rents- are doing so because of the savings in transportation

-24costs which the site provideso The outcome of this economic competition among alternate land uses is a spatially organized pattern of urban activities. Functional Accessibility This classification of accessibility is a measure of the opportunities for movement to (from) a particular urban function from (to) other urban activities that are spatially interconnected with the given functiono The boundary on the opportunities for travel is in this case the maximum range of travel to (from) the establishment for the given function, or the maximum range of travel for the given function in combination with one or more of the other spatially linked functions, The movement aspect of functional accessibility is either the friction or effort of the travel pattern which links the given function to the other activitieso As an example of this type of accessibility, consider a supermarket. It has strong linkages to the households which it serves, From empirical observations made in the field investigation which is a part of this study, it is known that a supermarket has other linkages of lesser importance to banks, to other food stores, to wholesale food suppliers and to households other than those furnishing a shopper at the supermarket, The area encompassed by the opportunities for movement includes the maximum range for some combination of the above functionso The travel pattern interconnecting these activities generates a cumulative travel effort which is also a measure of the functional accessibilityO

-25It is clear that the framework of reference for the above definition is the group of functions connected, But it is also clear that it is the movement pattern that establishes the linkages between the various land use activities. Travel behavior notions start with an individual having a demand for travel. This demand may include a collection of travel purposeso Each purpose has a maximum range of travelo These purposes may be grouped together to form a new maximum range of travel, It is then assumed that the individual considers all of the locations where the trip utility may be obtained and the various opportunities for movement to the different establishmentso As a result of this procedure, he arranges a sequence of movement that will maximize the difference, on a time basis, between total trip utility and aggregate travel effort. Discounted Accessibility This concept is used to account for the observed decrease in the intensity of travel to (from) an activity as the distance from the activity increases, The total displacement opportunities provided for people, goods, or services within some specified limit is diminished by a weighting factor which decreases with increasing distance from the establishmento At the maximum range the weighting factor is zero, When the displacement opportunities are calculated for a functional accessibility situation, it is understood that not all of the people, goods, or services will either move or be movedo The discounted accessibility notion measures the extent to which the potential is used at various radial distances from the establishmento

-26Accessibility and Effective Distance The general notion of accessibility as discussed in the prior paragraphs has been built around the concept of the opportunities for movement provided for people, goods, or services in urban areaso The evaluation of these opportunities undoubtedly involves a number of quality of movement considerations which can broadly be characterized as the time, comfort, and convenience factorso Discounted accessibility is probably the result of discounting for both distance and quality of movemento In the field of highway transportation, relative differences in the quality of travel may make one road far more attractive for movement than any other even with no difference in total overall lengtho In order to compare the quality of two different highways, units of measure and distinguishing terms are required in addition to ground distanceo From henceforth in the text, the term effective distance is assumed to encompass all possible measures and units for describing the spatial separation of two points including friction and effort factors and units of land measure, The term distance will from now on refer to land measure exclusively. In this context, distance is only one of many possible measures of effective distanceo Role of Effective Distance In Movement-Location Theory Two of the major structural assumptions in almost all of the theories of travel movement pertaining to land utilization are that 1 If elapsed time and distance are combined into a speed of travel notion, the entire process can conceptually be one of quality discounting.

-27transportation costs are proportional to distance and that the quality of movement is everywhere the same, This abstraction is necessary to simplify the variables and reduce their numbero Moreover, there has been no satisfactory technique to relate either the friction or effort of travel to distance, or to compare the relative qualities of movement between different routeso The role of effective distance in several location-movement theories is briefly sketched belowo Urban Land Rent R. Mo Haig laid down the principles of the urban land rent theory which were discussed under the topic of aggregate accessibility on p. 22, In brief, the theory holds that there is an order to the land use patterns which develop within urban areas, The utilization of urban land is dictated by the relative efficiency which each of the competing uses can make of a given site, One of the measures of this efficiency is the extent to which the competing land uses can utilize the aggregate accessibility of a given site when measured against the functional. accessibility requirements for each of these competing uses, Since notions of accessibility suggest quality of movement considerations and aggregate travel costs, effective distance as a measure of the interval spatially separating two or more points thus becomes one of the major factors shaping the resulting pattern of land utilization in Haig's theoryo 1 Haig, pp. 21-38,

28~ Another author, R, Uo Ratcliff, has written extensively on the urban land rent theory but his work has consisted chiefly of an amplification of Haig's basic principles. Location Theory The land rent theory discussed above stops with the identification of the forces tending to shape land utilizationo Location theory accepts the forces identified in the land rent concept, but goes further by attempting to explain the emergent pattern of land useo Location theory is constructed around the premise that the spatial position of an economic activity can be explained in terms of orderly and measurable processeso The part played by transportation in the location procedure is made more specific by explicit recognition of travel costs, or by acknowledging their indirect effect in establishing boundaries for producers or distributors of goods or services within an economic regiono Von Thunen assumed transportation costs to be directly proportional to distance in describing the concentric ring distribution of agricultural production around a single, isolated market with radial distance from the city dependent on the rent-paying ability of each cropo2 In his "Central Place Theory," Christaller set forth the complementary relationship between the number of functions in a central place and the magnitude of its 1For example see Richard Uo Ratcliff, Urban Land Economics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1949), po 3870 Ratcliff adds details to Haig's notion of the city center being the most accessible locationo 2 Johann N. von Thunen, Der Isolierte Staat in Beziehung auf Landwirtschaft und Nationalokonomie (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1930) and discussed in Richard To Ely and George So Wehrwein, Land Economics (New York: Macmillan, 1940), ppo 66-70~

rural market areao Boundaries between central places of the same size are determined on the basis of the maximum range of consumer movement from the rural areas to the central place for the function located thereo Christaller's conclusions that a group of overlapping hexagonal market areas develop, and that central places with the same number of functions have equal market areas depend on the assumption that transportation cost for the consumer is directly proportional to distanceo1 Losch postulated an economic region which is dissected into a net of hexagonal market areas for each commodityo The entire net is grouped around a central production point on the basis of least transportation [distance] 2 efforto Isard's notion of a regional economy proposes to express some of the complex economic relationships in terms of a transport inputo The latter is defined as the movement of a unit of weight over a unit of distance.3 Movement patterns in the foregoing theories are based upon complete knowledge of the market, no mistakes in travel choices, single purpose trips, and minimization of travel to fulfil the travel demando Troxel has suggested another approach to travel inducement and movement patterns by individual consumerso He outlines a process in which travel Walter Christaller, Die zentralen Orte in Suddeutschland (Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag, 1933), and analyzed by William Lo Garrison and Others, Studies of Highway Development and Geographic Change (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1959), po 51o 2 August Losch, The Economics of Location, 2d ed,, trans. William Ho Woglom assisted by Wolfgang Fo Stolper (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954), p. 111. 3 Walter Isard, Location and Space Economy (Cambridge: Technological Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1956), p. 79~

-30motivation by a home based consumer is predicated upon the individual maximizing the net return for a trip per unit of elapsed trip time, The gross travel returns are the utilities obtained from the establishments visitedo The deductions from gross travel returns include loss of home utility and travel costs for a given movement pattern. The gross trip utility less the cost of being away from home and the movement costs is the net travel return for the trip 1 Conclusion It is clear from the contributions made by various authors to urban land rent notions and to location theory that a major underlying assumption by all of these scholars is the direct relationship between distance and all possible measures of effective distance. The latter also implies an ubiquitous quality of movement. These theories and notions are of obvious interest to us today as we attempt to gain a better understanding of the urban structure. However, the abstraction that travel effort or travel friction is proportional to distance is not realistic when applied to an urban environmento The theory may still be valid though if appropriate units of effective distance are substituted for distance. Thus any attempt to empirically verify these existing theories as they relate to our urban areas depends upon the development of a practical technique for relating distance and effective distanceo 1 Troxel, ppo 151-55

-31Technical Concepts For Evaluating The Effective Distance Of Highway Travel Effective distance has been characterized as a measure of the interval spatially separating two or more points, The term embraces a complementary cause-effect relationship. Effective distance can be expressed in friction of travel units to emphasize the factors that are tending to oppose an actual or contemplated movement. Examples of friction of highway travel units are the number of stoplights, the number of stopsigns, or the number of major intersections per mile of travel. The friction of travel requires the expenditure of units of disutilityo Examples of these units are trip time, distance, trip fares, out-of-pocket costs, and physical efforto In this section friction factors for highway travel are examined but no attempt is made to quantify them due to the extensive numbero Possible measures of travel disutility are indicated along with the one used in this investigation. Factors Contributing To Highway Travel Friction The frictional environment of the highway is determined by the collective effect of the fixed fixtures of the highway path, the individual driver characteristics, the nature of the vehicles being driven, the traffic stream operating on the highway, terminal problems, the nature of the land use abutting and adjacent to the highway, general atmospheric conditions, and the configuration of the urban area. Highway Geometry These features are often inclusively referred to as the fixed geometric design elementso Their importance lies in the fact that their

-32combined effect conclusively determines the manner of vehicle operationo The highway designer considers the topography and land use through which the highway is planned. He estimates the hourly volume of vehicles which will move over the proposed highwayo The latter volume is essentially the load which is being applied to the highway and is extremely important in determining the type of geometric features providedo A design speed is selected which will correlate the physical. highway features with vehicle operation. Lastly, a capacity for the highway is selected with respect to uninterrupted flow, taking into account capacity restrictions of intersections at-grade, ramps, and weaving sectionso The previous design criteria are then translated into the basic elements of geometric designo These elements, all of which influence travel friction, include consideration of the items which follow: lo The passing sight distance necessary for one vehicle to overtake, pass, and move ahead of another vehicleo 2o The maximum degree of horizontal curvatureo 3o Horizontal easement curves to make the transition between tangent and circular sections of roadwayo 4, Superelevation of the outer edges of the pavement surface on horizontal curves and transition sectionso 5. Widening of the traffic lanes and shoulders on horizontal curves 60 Sight distance on horizontal curveso 7o The maximum vertical gradient, and the critical length of highway at that gradient which will not seriously affect vehicle operation. 80 The rate of change of the slope to the vertical curve connecting two vertical. gradientso 9. The facilities provided for the drainage of water from the pavement surface and adjacent right-of-way and the accompanying erosion control measureso

-3310o Landscape development of the highway right-of-way. 11o Highway lighting to increase the motorist's visibility. 12. The material used to construct the pavement surfaceo 13o The transverse slope of the traffic laneso 14. The width and number of traffic laneso 150 The control of access to abutting and adjacent lando 16o The number and complexity of at-grade intersectionso 17. Actual and apparent lateral obstructions along the highwayo Traffic Friction Highway traffic friction is determined by the interaction of the driver and vehicle characteristics, the geometry of the highway, the traffic regulations and control devices in effect, and the operating characteristics of the traffic stream, Driver Characteristics — In attempting to define the nature of individual road users, one finds that the pertinent elements are largely physical and psychological. The precise relationship between these factors and the manner in which the individual operates a motor vehicle has not been clearly defined except with respect to motor vehicle accidentso The bulk of the research in the past ten years pertaining to the individual road user has been in connection with accident proneness and the psychological traits of the individual which produce this type of drivero Investigators studying the general characteristics of the individual driver agree on the physical and psychological factors to consider, but the level of knowledge does not permit one to state the degree to which these factors influence

-34the driver. The problem is further complicated by the fact that each driver contributes certain individual characteristics to the composite nature of the traffic stream. Yet the composite characteristics of all the individuals using the highway have a feed-back effect which can produce changes in any one drivero To avoid delving into this problem, one usually assumes that a temporary state of equilibrium is reached between the characteristics of the traffic stream and each road usero The variables listed on the following pages are important characteristics of the individual road user which may vary widely among individualso The ability of each driver to interpret changing highway and traffic situations and to comprehend the mechanical operation of the car appears to be somewhat related to the general level of intelligence. Matson notes that drivers having a higher mechanical comprehension tend to have fewer traffic accidentso But drivers with superior intelligence appear to be less attentive to the driving tasko1 Moffie also found that safe drivers made high scores on mechanical comprehension testso2 The ability of the driver to learn from previous highway and traffic situations will condition his response when these same or similar situations occur againo The familiarity of the driver with a particular route and 1 Theodore Mo Matson and Others, Traffic Engineering (New York: McGrawHill, 1955), po 12o Do J Moffie and Others, "Relation Between Psychological Tests and Driver Performance," National Research Council. Highway Research Board Bulletin,60 (1952), p. 22.

-35his years of driving experience are important characteristics of the individual. Visual acuity is another important variable between driverso Every highway or traffic situation that requires some positive action by the driver involves an individual time response factoro This is the total time that elapses while the driver perceives and evaluates the road situation presented to him, decides on a course of action, and begins to set certain mechanical operations in motiono The physical and emotional wellbeing of the driver affects the manner in which he driveso Fatigue, alcohol, drugs, anxiety, and anger have well known effects on individualso Disease and disability tend to produce more complex and less well known effectso The age and sex of the driver may also be important factorso In connection with age though, some authors point out that functional age is much more important than chronogical ageol Varying weather conditions are known to produce drastic changes in vehicle operationo But Matson notes that the generalized climate of an area also evokes different psychological responses in the individualo Severe weather conditions produce apprehension. Unusually high temperatures produce nervous irritabilityo2 Unusually low temperatures tend to slow down physical activity and responses. Strong winds may cause the driver to adopt a more cautious driving behavioro Precipitation, cloudiness, and fog reduce the driver's visibility. Depending on the humidity and temperature, any of these three items may add to or subtract from the 1 Ross Ao McFarland, "Human Factors in Highway Transport Safety," National Research Councilo Highway Research Board Bulletin,60 (1952), po 41l 2 Matson and Others, Traffic Engineering, p. 23.

-36individual's level of comfort, Bright sunshine often makes people feel more expansive while dull, cloudy days cause them to be more withdrawno The generalized weather conditions undoubtedly produce complex reactions in individuals but little appears to be known concerning its precise effect. The trip purpose is presumed to have an effect on the manner in which the vehicle is operated and on the highway selectedo But it undoubtedly produces an effect on the driver, irrespective of the two preceding manifestationso Trips of an emergency nature produce apprehension and anxietyo The driver is probably more relaxed on a social-recreational trip than he is on a work tripo The length of time available for a particular trip is importanto Lastly, one's degree of social maturity seems to be related to one's driving behavior, Fear, anger, self-protection and competition are not uncommon responses produced in the driver. Control of these emotions requires a mature individualo Brody found a high correlation between accident repeaters, traffic violators, and the emotional make-up of the individualo The violators and repeaters were aggressive, intolerant of others, resented authority, had exaggerated opinions of themselves, and acted impulsivelyo McFarland stated it quite succinctly when he said that a man drove a car in the same manner that he livedo If he were maladjusted in his personal life, then he was apt to be an accident prone drivero2 1 Leon Brody, "Personal Characteristics of Chronic Violators and Accident Repeaters " National Research Council, Highway Research Board Bulletin, 152 (1957, P. 2. 2 Ross Ao McFarland, Highway Research Board Bulletin, 60 (1952), po 41o

-37Vehicle Characteristics, — The motor vehicle contributes to highway friction in a number of complex ways. The dimensions, performance, operating ease, state of repair, and physical comfort influence the extent of its use and the manner of its operation. When the vehicle is moving on the highway, it can be considered as a discrete particle in a traffic stream, In this context, each vehicle produces an effect on the drivers of other cars coming within its zone of influence as well as an effect on the individual operating the caro Physical dimensions of an automobile produce reactions on the driver. The drivers of small foreign and compact cars cite their increased highway maneuverability. Some owners of the physically smaller imports will not drive on freeways during rush hours due to the lower and narrower silhouette, and smaller horsepower. The larger width, and longer length and overhang of the standard American car is a disadvantage in congested traffic or where parking maneuvers are restricted. The operating ease and physical comfort of a vehicle are best described by its general road behaviorol Included within this classification would be the behavior of the braking system; the ability of the car to prevent or reduce uncomfortable motion for its passengers when moving over rough or uneven road surfaces (generally characterized by the single word ride); the noise level inside the car due to the motor and power train system, body rattles and looseness, and tire, pavement, and wind noise; the seating comfort provided by the seat contour, the height For an excellent discussion of the term, see "Road Behavior," Consumer Reports, XXVI, No~ 4 (April, 1961), po 183o

-38above the floor, the upholstery of the seat surface, the firmness of the springs, and the insulation and padding over the springs; steering as measured by the degree of close agreement between changes in the car's direction in relation to the amount of turning of the steering wheel; and lastly, the visibility afforded to the driver so that he will receive all visible information related to the safe operation of his caro For a large cross-section of vehicles, the state of repair is related to the ageo Here again the variability is greato Some drivers purchase new automobiles and spend the absolute minimum on maintenance since they plan to trade every two yearso Other drivers will not operate a vehicle of any age unless it is in a satisfactory state of repair, Traffic Regulationso —Traffic regulations and motor vehicle codes promulgated at the state and local level are unquestionably involved with the driver's evaluation of highway frictiono Of all regulations, probably speed controls are the most important, since they establish the maximum speed at which the motorist may legally travel. In urban areas, pedestrian rules, bicycle regulations, and their level of enforcement establish the degree and extent to which the motorist must share the highway with individuals who are not motor vehicle operatorso The presence of numerous bicycles and pedestrians in the street gives the motorist a sense of uneasiness and he may drastically reduce his speedo The establishment of one-way streets can improve the ease of movement on these streets. But they can increase the actual driving time and distance if the destination happens to be inconveniently situated with respect to the one-way street system. Curb parking regulations are related to the

-39terminal problem. The time duration of curb parking permitted tends to control the turnover of parking space, and thus the availability. The permitting of curb parking and its time-duration is important to those facilities within the maximum limit of the distance which a motorist will walko Traffic Control Devices, —Traffic control devices are physical appurtenances which are placed along the highway at specific locations to advise the motorists of any requirements or conditions influencing his use of the highway. In order to be effective, control devices must be viewed and understood by the motorist. The time rate with which the driver encounters these devices, their visibility, the clarity of meaning, and the complexity of any driver maneuvers required by these devices, are important to the driver's ease, safety, and comfort of movement, Traffic signs are placed along the roadway for a number of purposeso Traffic regulations relating to roadway use must be conveyed to the motoristo No parking signs and speed control signs are typical of this group. Signs are also used to warn the motorist of an impending danger Advisory speed signs for sharp curves, underpasses with restricted vertical clearances, and railroad crossings fit into this category, Signs can also be used to direct the motorist such as one that tells him the name of the next town and its distance, Traffic markings are the lines, words, or Symbols that are usually affixed to the pavement or curb, A traffic marking may be regulatory, as it is when the speed limit is painted on the pavement, or the curb is painted yellow to signify a "No Parking" zoneo It may be advisory

-4owhen the words "School Ahead" are painted on the pavement, or it may be guiding when left turning lanes, through traffic lanes, and right-turning lanes are appropriately marked on the pavemento The last traffic control device is the traffic signalo This control device is used at intersections where the volumes of vehicles approach the capacity of the intersection, and it is necessary to assign priority of movement to each of the different approaching legs. The individual motorist's evaluation of highway friction is partially dependent on his ability to keep his car movingo The length of delay for a driver at any signal depends on the time apportionment between the diverse highway routes and the number of cars ahead of him waiting to move through the intersection after the light changes to greeno Operating Characteristics Of The Traffic Stream. —An indirect indication of the motorist's evaluation of the travel friction of a particular highway can be obtained by measuring the operating characteristics of all the traffico If this discussion is restricted to the urban area where usually there are a number of choices of routes available, then one can assume that the driver has considered the nature of the other drivers on the road, their vehicles, the type of highway design, and the operating traffic characteristics which are known or are likely to existo Given this information and the trip purpose, the motorist makes his selection of a particular routeo In characterizing traffic stream friction, one needs to know the various components making up the total-private cars, commercial vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrianso Speed is another variable which can be

described in a number of different fashions. The running speed is the average speed maintained while the vehicle is in motion. Over-all speed is the average between the origin and destinationo Cruising speed is the nominal speed of the vehicle when it is not obstructed. Maximum and minimum speeds are self-explanatoryo And lastly, the feature of the traffic stream may be noted by measuring traffic volumes and their distribution by time: hourly, daily, and weekly; their distribution by particular routes; and, their distribution longitudinally along the highway to obtain a density measuremento Terminal Problems A trip made via private automobile and highway from an origin to a particular destination usually involves the temporary storage of the vehicle at or near the destination. Parking and storage is in reality a part of the total highway movement problem. The proximity of parking facilities may strongly influence the driver's choice of destination, when a choice existso For a motor vehicle trip which terminates in an on-street parking space, terminal friction is determined by the following considerations: the municipal parking regulations in effect at that location; whether parking meters are present, and if so, the parking charge per time period; whether cars are parked parallel to the curb or at an angle; the lineal dimensions of the curb parking space in relation to the size of the motorist's car; the adequacy of definition of individual curb parking spaces by means of painted lines and curbs; and lastly, the extent of traffic interference to curb parking maneuvers caused by vehicles moving past the curb parking space,

42For vehicle trips terminating in an off-street parking space, terminal friction is evaluated by the following considerations: the ease and safety of movement over the road connecting the street or highway and the off-street parking area; whether the off-street parking provided is a lot or a garage; if a garage, whether parking of vehicles is done by motorists or attendants; if parking in a garage is by attendant, the time delays in delivery and pick-up of the motorist's car; if parking in the garage or lot is by the individual motorist, the ease of interior circulation within the lot or garage as measured by the sharpness of turns, steepness of grades (if any), width of aisles, angle of parking, lineal dimensions of individual stalls, spacing between stalls, clarity of delineation of parking spaces, interference from other vehicles, type of pavement surface and adequacy of drainage, and safety and distance of pedestrian movement from car through parking area; and lastly, for all off-street facilities, the parking charges, if any, and whether collected by meter or attendanto Control Of Access And Land Use Comprehensive community planning is physically expressed in the master plan for the urban areao A transportation plan for the community, evolving from the master plan, can materially minimize future traffic problems, since the transportation plan provides for congruity in the development of land and transportation facilitieso The major tool for implementing the master plan and all its elements, is the zoning ordinanceo Zoning regulations control the location and density of traffic generators and thus can effectively limit traffic congestiono The

-43National Committee on Urban Transportation has noted that "to a greater extent than in the past, zoning ordinances today embody special provisions dealing specifically with traffic problems and land-use development. 1 The Committee stated that these special provisions include requirements for off-street parking and off-street loading and unloading when new buildings are constructed or when major building revisions take place, the screening of parking areas from adjacent residential developments, and for the location of terminal facilities in relation to major street systems But the implementation of the land-use plan and the balancing of land uses and transportation facilities are not the only objectives of a zoning program. As Stanhagen pointed out, a zoning program can be effective in the preservation of the traffic-carrying ability of existing or newly developed transportation routes and in the proper utilization of existing transport routes. The effect of zoning controls on highway movement is largely indirect by providing a faster, safer, and a more free moving manner of vehicle operationo This in turn tends to reduce the friction of travel. Climatic Conditions The generalized weather conditions are presumed to be an important factor in the evaluation of highway frictiono However, there are National Committee on Urban Transportation, Better Transportation for Your City (Chicago: Public Administration Service, 1958), p. 87. Wo Ho Stanhagen, Highway Transportation Criteria In Zoning Law (Washington: UoSo Government Printing Office, 1960), po 6,

no studies available to evaluate the precise and complex influence of weather. A previous section has indicated that climate produces a psychological reaction on the individual highway user, separate and distinct from his role as a vehicle operatoro Climate also strongly affects the speed and safety of vehicle operationo Snow, rain, fog, and reduced visibility under general storm conditions make driving less safe, Undoubtedly the highway user takes these factors into account when contemplating a motor tripo Operators of retail businesses have noted that customer volumes fall off with inclement weather of any kind, including a light rain shower, Shape Of Land Use Development The spatial arrangement of urban land activities is influenced by the collective effect of individual travel behavior patternso But such behavioristic influence in causing the rearrangement or development of urban functions is always subject to the limitations of availability and suitability of land for the intended useo These limitations include topography, climate, soil characteristics, physical barriers both natural and man-made, existing land uses, and zoning restrictionso The effect of travel behavior subject to these limitations can produce a spatial distribution of urban functions irregular in shapeo For highway users residing and traveling within these areas, the irregular shape influences travel distances and establishes the lower limit for individual and collective minimization of travel efforto

-45Conclusions The individual factors contributing to travel friction are multitudinous and varied. In a broad sense the friction results from the interaction of physical and behaviorial elementso But the precise way the driver, the vehicle, and the highway environment are interrelated is not known due to the paucity of researcho The behaviorial implications of the problem and the relation of the friction of highway travel to land use activities suggest that the total problem is one involving both the physical and social scienceso Examination of the highway environment has resulted in the identification of over two hundred factors involved in the evaluation of highway frictiono Yet there is no assurance that this list is an exhaustive citation. The causative factors influencing highway friction are endless, many are variable with time, and are interdependent with other variables, all of which must be measured at the same time. The difficulty of identification of highway friction factors, let alone any attempt at quantification, suggests that measures of travel disutility may be a more productive approach to the problemo Measures Of Disutility For Highway Travel Time And Distance A review of highway research literature leaves little doubt that time, distance, or some combination of the two are the most widely used units for measures of travel disutility. Voorhees used auto travel time in place of distance in calculating travel patterns to shopping

-46centers. In assigning automobile trips to major arterial streets and expressways, the California Division of Highways has developed a family of curves for the per cent diversion of traffic to arterials and expressways from other surface streets. The per cent diversion is based on the time and distance saved on the expressway or arterial when compared with other surface streetso2 Essentially the same technique was used in the Detroit Metropolitan Area Studyo3 An improvement on the time and distance technique for traffic assignment is the development of discounting factors for trip assignment based on travel time in minutes and four categories of trip purposeso4 The effectiveness of time and distance as a measure of travel disutility has been studied by a number of different authorso The general conclusion is that time and distance over competing routes are important factors in the decision process of the motorist, but these two factors alone do not explain all the choices of highways which motorists actually make. Speaking with respect to this problem Rothrock and Campbell noted that "more studies of driver preference are needed in order to give engineers a clearer picture of traffic diversion" [to freeways]5, Trueblood, 1 Alan Mo Voorhees and Others, "Shopping Habits and Travel Patterns," National Research Councilo Highway Research Board Special Report, 11-B (1955), po 16o 2National Committee on Urban Transportation, Better Transportation for Your City (Chicago: Public Administration Service, 1958), p. 64. 3 Detroit Metropolitan Area Traffic Study, Part II (Lansing: SpeakerHines and Thomas, 1955), po 830 4 Alan Mo Voorhees and Robert Morris, "Estimating and Forecasting Travel for Baltimore by Use of Mathematical Model," National Research Councilo Highway Research Board Bulletin, 224 (1959), po 108o 5 National Research Council.~ Highway Research Board, Traffic Assignment (Washington, D Co, 1952), po 7o (Its Bulletin 61)o

-47in studying freeway usage on the Shirley Memorial Highway in Arlington and Fairfax Counties, Virginia, concluded: "that motorists are also influenced by factors other than distance and travel time is evidenced by the fact that nineteen per cent of the motorists studied lost both time and distance" [on their choice of route when compared with other alternatives available] 1 Travel Cost A few studies have attempted to evaluate the total cost of 2 vehicle travel in monetary terms.2 When dealing with vehicle costs the analysis is straightforward. But controversy arises when the authors attempt to attach a money value to the trip timeo Problems of compatibility of units arise when the trip is partly by motor vehicle and partly by walking. For these reasons little support is found for a cost approach to travel disutility. Driver Actions And Vehicle Maneuvers This chapter has indicated that a multitude of factors can be involved in the motorist's concept of highway frictiono Furthermore, since many of these factors are variables, they will be changing with timeo To attempt to measure all of the highway friction factors and their variation with time in a single field experiment becomes impossible. One solution to this problem is to place a test vehicle and a driver in the 1 Ibido, po 18. 2 Bruce Do Greenshields, "Quality of Traffic Flow," Quality and Theory of Traffic Flow (New Haven: Bureau of Highway Traffic, Yale University, 1961), p. 29.

-48highway environment and to quantitatively record the manner in which he drives over different routes, This technique assumes that differences in driving behavior on the part of a single driver over the various sections of the urban highway net are due to differences in the highway environment Dro Bruce Do Greenshields, Assistant Director, University of Michigan Transportation Institute, in collaboration with Mro Fletcher No Platt, Director of Highway Safety, Ford Motor Company, have developed a piece of equipment, which they call a Driveometer, to measure driver actions and vehicle maneuvers while traveling over the highway, Greenshields makes the following observations with respect to this work: The equipment [in the test car] furnishes an entire record of the motions of the car, the actions of the driver, and the traffic and highway events, This data makes it possible to evaluate the driving behavior patterns of various drivers and correlate them with the characteristics of the traffic environment.............. The results of 300 driving tests over a selected route show that driving patterns can be measured and highway environment characterized [numerically], Greenshields and Platt indicate that the traffic and highway events are significant observations or happenings occuring with the zone of sight of the driver which have the potential to require the driver to make some adjustment in his operation of the vehicleo Dr, Greenshields has permitted the author to use the Driveometer for investigating highway travel for supermarket shopping tripso Bruce Do Greenshields and Fletcher No Platt, "A Technique for Investigating the Relationship of Traffic and Highway Events to Driver Actions," Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1961, (Mimeographed)

-49The driver actions (and the resulting vehicle maneuvers) as measured by the Driveometer are the physical acts of the driver to control the vehicle in response to the existing highway environmento This control requires the driver to exert physical effort in order to turn the steering wheel, and to depress the accelerator and brake, Thus the quantitative values for driver actions are measurements of the physical effort resulting from the friction of the highway environmento In addition, these driver actions are objective manifestations of the driver's evaluation of the highway geometry and traffic characteristics at the time of the tripo It is recognized that there is also a mental effort involved in driving an automobile, but it was not considered in this investigationo Michaels has reported that the emotional tension of driving on urban streets is directly related to traffic volumes, land use activities abutting on the highway, and the complexity of the highway geometryol.2 Other than these studies, little work has been done in this area. The particular operating controls for which a manipulation record is made are as follows: reversals of the steering wheel and the number of brake and accelerator pedal applicationso In addition to these driver actions, the following variables pertaining to the vehicle are recorded: elapsed time, distance, time in motion, and cumulative change of speed and compass direction. 1 Richard M Michaels, "Effect of Expressway Design on Driver Tension Responses," National Research Councilo Highway Research Board Bul.letin, 330 (1962), p 23~ 2 Richard Mo Michaels, "Tension Responses of Drivers Generated on Urban Streets, " National Research Council. Highway Research Board Bulletin, 271 (1960), ppo 29-44.

-50In Greenshields' work, the highway route was fixed so that different drivers maneuvered the test vehicle over the same route. Thus the individual driver was a variable along with the traffic characteristics and climatic conditions. However, if the same driver is used in the test vehicle, and the highway route becomes the variable, the test vehicle can be used to measure the friction of the highway environment for different streets and highways, thus permitting relative comparisons of the physical effort of travelo

CHAPTER III MEASURING THE EFFECTIVE DISTANCE OF TRAVEL FOR SUPERMARKET SHOPPING TRIPS Statement Of The Problem Concepts Of Shopping Trip Travel Behavior The integration of the theory and notions of urban movement presented in Chapter II give us the following composite picture of urban residents as they plan and execute shopping trips: Not all of the needs and desires of the family can be satisfied within the establishment housing the family unito The members of the household must move to the establishments producing and dispensing the goods and services needed by the family. Thus urban travel becomes the means by which the household acquires the utility of particular goods and serviceso Every utility in the urban area is assumed to have a set of defining coordinates which specifies the spatial separation of the utility from the home base of the household. For each and every spatial separation from the home base there is also associated a total travel effort caused by the friction of travel, As time progresses, members of the household accumulate shopping needs which can only be satisfied by leaving the home base and moving to the location of the utilities. The theory and notions imply that the household member considers the accumulated shopping needs in relation to the various spatial locations where these utilities can be obtained. He evaluates the gross shopping utility to be obtained from a particular retail establishment, subtracts from this gross utility the loss of utility occasioned by the travel costs and the loss of utility which results from leaving the comfort and convenience of his home baseo The result is the net utility obtained from the shopping trip. If the shopper has incomplete knowledge of the retail market, he attaches a probability of success factor to his stop at an establishment. He combines stops in a sequence that will maximize his net utility per unit of elapsed time. -51

-52This description applies to a possible procedure whereby the household member arrives at a decision to leave his home baseo Obviously such a decision is predicated on the net utility being greater than zero. But as the trip progresses there may be a revaluation of the tripo This can be due to a failure to obtain the shopping utilityo Thus the path sequence may be altered. The theory also assumes that loss of home satisfaction increases with elapsed time, while travel costs are approximately proportional to distanceo Thus failure at an establishment results in a decrease of gross utilityo Several failures can result in a negative gross trip utility and cause the shopper to return home. The above presentation explains how and why urban residents are motivated to make shopping trip expeditions, and the manner in which they determine their path sequenceo The procedure is valid for one or more shopping needso It explains the success of the large integrated shopping centers, for here a multi-purpose trip can be combined into one stop with a minimum expenditure of time and travel effort. Field Investigation Objectives And Limitations A field study based upon the shopping trip procedure described above would be divided into five partso These are: (1) obtaining by means of a shopper interview a record of the precise block-by-block street movement; (2) the recording of street addresses of all establishments visited, precise locations where the automobile was parked, movement paths as a pedestrian, and the street address of the home base; (3) evaluating the quality of travel on the streets and highways used; (4) improvising a manner to cumulatively add the gross utility for multipurpose shopping trips; and (5) devising an overall measure of travel disutility which integrates movement on the highway, walking, and the friction at terminalso

-53The magnitude of an investigation of this scope that would be statistically significant is not justified at the present time. Almost no work has been done relating shopping trip utility to the disutility of highway travel. Any research contemplated in this area should be a pilot study to establish the feasibility of a broader investigationo From a research point of view, it would be desirable to devise a measure of travel disutility in one investigation and a means of adding multipurpose trip utility in a second investigationo While the situation described is applicable, the pilot study was reduced to include only single purpose automobile shopping trips, beginning and ending at home, and made to a food supermarket. These limitations avoid the difficulty of adding multi-purpose trip utility. A food supermarket tends to have uniform potential utility for many people. In most large chain supermarkets, the food items stocked and the depth of selection tends to be similaro Therefore, it was assumed that the selection of a supermarket by a shopper was made for reasons of travel friction rather than store contents. Based upon the above limitations, the field investigation was oriented toward answering five specific questions: (1) Can the environment of urban highways be characterized by driver actions and vehicle motions measured with Greenshields' Driveometer; (2) Can these measurements be represented by an index number; (3) Can this index be used to compare different highways classified according to design and use; (4) For households within the maximum range of the supermarket, are the number of household contacts at the store related to the index and thus to effective distance; and (5) Can indexes, once developed for urban streets, be used to synthesize urban shopping tripso

-54Resume At one of ten similar supermarkets in the city of Ann Arbor, Michigan, a random sample of all shoopers was interviewed for a period of one week to obtain a collection of single purpose automobile trips originating at the shopper's householdo The interview recorded the shopper's home address, the precise highway route traveled to the store, the contemplated route home, and the parking location of the car in an adjacent loto Using a test car equipped with Greenshields' Driveometer, the routes and parking maneuvers recorded in the interview were redriven and data recordedo The major arterial highways providing access to the supermarket were also driven with the test car, Assumptions The major assumptions in this investigation are as follows: (1) that the utility of a shopping trip can be adequately characterized in terms of the function of the establishment; (2) that the travel disutility consists of the driver actions and vehicle maneuvers for the terminal and for the highway, and that these values can be added to obtain a single value for the trip; (3) that the bulk of the urban shoppers attempt to maximize net shopping utility by maximizing the difference between the gross trip utility and the travel disutility per unit of elapsed time; (4) that the omission of data for loss of home utility, walking distances at home and at the store, and unparking and parking maneuvers at the home base, will not seriously affect the results; (5) that for each extra-home utility desired by the urban shopper there is some maximum range of travel; (6) that the highway environment can be measured by

-55using a test vehicle that records driver actions, vehicle motions, elapsed trip time, trip running time, and trip distance; (7) that the test- vehicle will encounter approximately the same highway environment by redriving the shopper's route to the store at the same hour of the day and on the same day of the week since traffic tends to be periodic; (8) that in the aggregate, the selection of a supermarket by shoppers is predicated upon the minimization of travel effort rather than store contents; and (9) that the use of a single driver in a test vehicle equipped with the Driveometer results in a uniform driving behavior pattern so that relative differences in driver behavior can be assumed to be caused by differences in the highway environment. Models Of Supermarket Shopping Trip Travel Behavior A general model encompassing a shopping trip can be framed in terms of trip utility: Unet per unit of elapsed trip time = gross TEtotal -he (1) Elapsed trip time This model states that the net utility per unit of shopping trip time is equal to the gross utility less the total terminal effort and less the effort of movement within the highway environment, divided by the elapsed trip time. The total terminal effort for single-purpose home-to-store-tohome shopping trips consists of the effort at the home base plus the effort at the store: TEtotal = thome base + tstore, (2)

-56The terminal friction of the home base includes walking from the place of residence to the location where the car is garaged or parked, the unparking maneuvers, and the accelerating and entering into the traffic stream. The reverse procedure occurs on returning home. The terminal effort at the store includes the effort of leaving the arterial and the traffic stream, driving in the parking lot, vehicle parking maneuvers, and walking from the car to the entrance to the store. The reverse sequence occurs when leaving the store to return to the home base. The effort of travel within the highway environment equals the sum of the effort of movement on the arterials, the collector streets, and the residential streetso In symbolic terms: Ehe = EMarterial + EMcollector + EMresidential. (3) The effort of movement on an arterial expressed as a quantitative value is believed to be a function of three other quantities: effective distance traveled on the arterial, the time of the day, and the day of the week, or: EMarterial = f (effective arterial distance, time of the day, and day of the week). (4) Research Methods Selection Of Supermarket Within the city of Ann Arbor, Michigan (population 71,000) there are ten supermarkets offering similar food and household maintenance items within the same price range. These ten stores are spatially distributed throughout the city as shown on the map in Figure 20, rear

-57pocket. The customer patronage is almost exclusively by the automobile transported shoppero Of these ten supermarkets, the selection was narrowed to four stores belonging to one chaino These four are similar in size, items stocked, and the availability of parking facilitieso The four stores are indicated on the maps in Figures 18, 19, and 20, rear pocketo Figure 18 shows the urban highway net serving the stores. Figures 19 and 20 show the population distribution and the generalized land use for the areas which the stores serve. Store one is located on Packard Road near the city limits in southeastern Ann Arboro Access to the store is provided by two major arterial highwayso The first- Packard Road- leads northwesterly to the central business district and southeasterly to the urban fringeo The second- Stadium Boulevard- is an outer circumferential arterial which passes around the south and west sides of the cityo Between store one and the Packard- Stadium intersection to the northwest the business development is as shown in Figure 1o There is little pedestrian traffic between business establishmentso Store two is situated in a forty-five unit regional shopping center in eastern Ann Arboro The shopping center is immediately northwest of the separated intersection of an intercounty north-south limited access freeway and a major intracounty east-west arterial. See the map in Figure 2 for the location of store two, Store three is located in a fifteen unit community shopping center in the western part of Ann Arbor. Interstate Route 94, Stadium Boulevard, and West Huron Street provide access to the store as shown on the map in Figure 3o Store four is situated in north central Ann Arbor north of the

-58PACKARD-EAST STADIUM BUSINESS DISTRICT TO D MNTOWN ANN AMOR-m. STADIUM BLVD. I ROQUOIS SOUTH BLVD. \+ SOUTH BLVD. \\ COLER I. UPERMARKET ONE BROCKMAN BLVD. 2. BANK JORN CT. 3. GAS STATION JORN CT. 0 4. FOOD & DRUG MART OTHER BUSINESSES ANDERSON TOTAL PARKI J 140 BSPACES ~,_-_..o., 020Q 4000 t*~\0 CRESTLAND 0 200 400 \ \ FEET D. R. DESKINSJR.I 9 6 Figure 1. Location of Supermarket One in Packard Road- East Stadium Blvd. Business District, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

-59ARBORLAND SHOPPING CENTER I I TOTAL PARKING 2351U SPACES BYPS ^ r --' 3. FINANCE COMPANY 4. DRUO STORE 5. S.8. KRESGE o> 6. GAS STATION. PENNY'S OTHER BUSINESS 0 200 400 FEET D.R. DESKIN8. JR. 19f6 Figure 2. Location of Supermarket Two in Regional Shopping Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

-6oWESTGATE SHOPPING CENTER'4 -. (t r H TO DOWNTOWN ANN ARBOR —CBD I -, I I \ /I> v 8/ SPACES I | 1 1 /J —, —-I! —I (p II. ARLANS' DEPARTMENT STORE 2\.. 8. KRESGE _^ —- c~~~~~~3. SUPERMARKET THREE 0 200 400 4. BANK 5. DRUG STORE _ _________________ _ ffS. RESTAURANT FEET 7. GAS STATION ] OTHER BUSINESSES D.R. DE8KINS JR. J e. Figure 3. Location of Supermarket Three in Community Shopping Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

-61Huron River near the intersection of two major highways leading to the northeast to urban fringe and rural areas. See Figure 4 for location map of this supermarket. Because of the emphasis in this investigation on single purpose trips, stores two and three were not considered. Store four was also eliminated because of its physical separation from the city to the southo Store one was the supermarket selected for this study. Supermarket Interviewing To obtain information concerning the shopper's home address, the highway route used, and the purpose of the trip, shopper's were interviewed at store one, The interviews were conducted from 9:00 AM to 9:00 PM, Thursday, July 5, through Wednesday, July 11, 1962. The store was closed on Sunday, July 8. The interviewing station was located inside the supermarket near the sole customer exit and was staffed by two young women, one of whom interviewed customers after completion of their purchases. The other maintained an hourly count of the household unitsl 2 represented by customers passing through the check-out stationso The average number of interviews per hour was nine, ranging from a high of 1 The significance of the housing unit is that it is the population unit which normally satisfies the collective grocery and household maintenance shopping needs for individual members of that housing unito 2 A housing unit is one of the methods of characterizing the intensity of usage of urban residential lando The Uo S. Bureau of Census defines a housing unit as a "group of rooms or a single room occupied or intended for occupany as separate living quarterso" It does not include "group quarters" defined "as living arrangements for institutional inmates, or groups containing five or more persons unrelated to the person in charge whose quarters are not divided into housing unitso"

-62BROADWAY- MAIDEN LANE BUSINESS DISTRICT ~ ol / /- / E —-------- ODD B ROADWAY 2. DRUG STORE 3. GA8 STATION \ 4. SUPERMARKET FOUR O. HELP YOURSELF LAUNDRY f CLEANER \ EM OTHER BUSINESSES 0 200 400 FEET D.R. DESKIN8, JR. 1 9 g 3 Figure 4. Location of Supermarket Four in Broadway- Maiden Lane Business District, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Business District, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

-63fourteen to a low of three. Appendix A shows the Shopping Travel Inventory form used for the interviewo Not included in Appendix A is the map of the street system of Ann Arbor on which the shopper, on an individual copy, traced his highway route to and from the storeo The map omitted in Appendix A is similar to Figure 17o Prior to the investigation there was doubt whether the shopper could perform this tasko Pilot interviews conducted prior to the investigation indicated that shoppers could complete this request with ease and enjoymento Weather The presumed inportance of weather as it relates to shopping trips has been discussed previously. On the form shown in Appendix B is a weather charto The weather matrix is an abbreviated form of the one used by the Uo So Department of Commerce Weather Bureauo During the six day store interview period, an hourly record of the weather was maintained. When the highway route used by the shopper was redriven with the test car, the weather conditions, using this matrix, were recorded for tripo Street And Highway Classification It is an established practice among traffic engineers to classify street systems on a functional basis (eogo, arterial, Under this concept, the conclusion is that one family homes, separate apartments in multiple dwellings and rooming houses with less than five roomers are considered to be housing unitso As a practical matter, a housing unit will consist of living quarters of one or more rooms either having, or having direct access to, separate kitchen or cooking equipmento (Source: UoSo Census of Population: 1960, General Population Characteristics, Michigan Final Report PC (1) - 24B, po ix and Xo)

-64residential, collector, freeway). The proposition underlying this classification is that the quality of movement and traffic carrying ability of each of these classifications are fundamentally different, There are no uniform rules for the classificationo It usually consists of a physical inventory of the geometric design features supplemented by field observations to observe the characteristics of road use, Since one of the objectives of the field investigation is to evaluate the effort of highway movement on urban streets, it is necessary to first classify the streets into functional groupso The criteria used to do this is shown in Table 4. The application of these criteria to the Ann Arbor street system results in the functional classification indicated on the map in Figure 18, rear pocket. Use Of Test Car And Driveometer Instrumentation A schematic layout of the Driveometer in an automobile is shown in Figure 5. Three types of data are collected: driver actions, car motions, and traffic events. Driver actions of the vehicle operator taken from the movements of the steering wheel, the brake, and the accelerator are recorded inside the data box on the back seat of the car. The car motions- cumulative change of speed and compass direction- are also recorded here, Traffic events are recorded manually by means of slide switches, controlled by an observer in either the front or rear seat, See Appendices C and D for the events measured and the layout of the recording keyboard. Traffic events were recorded but were not analyzed as a part of this investigationo

-65TABLE 4 CRITERIA FOR THE FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE URBAN STREET SYSTEM Residential Expressway- Collec- and Local Criteria Freeway Arterial tor Access Control of access Yes- Yes- No No full partial Designed to move traffice 100% 80% 50% 0% Designed to provide local 0% 20% 50% 100% access Operating speeds 35-50 25-35 20-25 Noo of moving traffice 4-8 4 min, 2 mino 1 mino lanes Parking permitted No Revocable Yes Yes privilege No. of parking lanes 0 2 (option) 2 2 Street width 4-8 44'-48' 40'-44' 30' lanes1 Max~ grade 3% 6% 8% 12% Urban spacing (miles) 1-53 1 1/2 VPH2 Capacity 1500 350 150 Interconnects different Yes Yes No No parts of city Interconnects different Yes Yes Yes No lands uses Interconnects major Yes Yes No No routes entering city Serves through traffic Yes Yes No No 1 @ 12'/lane 2 Vehicles per hour

-66The camera shown in Figure 5 is mounted on the deck behind the rear seat and takes time-lapse photographs. It is used for checking the visible traffic and highway conditions while the driver actions and vehicle motions are being recordedo Figure 8 shows a mirror on the rear of the front seat for reflecting the view of the road to the rear in the lower one-half of the photograph while the upper one-half shows the road ahead. In this study the camera was mounted directly behind the top center portion of the windshield taking photographs of the road ahead onlyo Figures 6 and 7 indicate the instrumentation installed in the test car, a 1960 two-door Ford from the University of Michigan Motor Pool fleet, and equipped with a six cylinder motor and automatic transmission. The front seat passenger in Figure 6 is the observer and is holding the traffic event keyboardo A partial view of the data recording box is visible through the rear side window. Figure 8 shows the data box in position on a level platform. Figure 9 shows a device mounted on the steering column that records reversals of the steering wheel. It also shows an attachment to the accelerator pedalo One number is added to the cumulative recording dials on the display panel whenever: (1) there is a steering wheel reversal greater than 0258 radians (about 15 degrees); (2) the accelerator pedal is depressed and then allowed to raise one-fourth of an inch; and (3) the brake is applied so the stop light is actuatedo The power supply for the data box is through the electric cable fastened in the cigarette lighter receptacle as shown in Figure 9o

-67TRAFFIC EVENTS CAMERA PHOTOGRAPHS ROAD RECORDED AHEAD AND BEHIND VEHICLE DRIVER ACTIONS CAR MOTIONS RECORDED RECORDED CUMULATIVE COUNTS STORED TRAFFIC EVENTS DRIVER ACTIONS CAR MOTIONS CAR INTERSECTING FROM RIGHT OR LEFT * ACCELERATOR MOVEMENTS * SPEED ONE OR TWO CARS AHEAD * STEERING WHEEL REVERSALS * MILEAGE CAR APPROACHING * STEERING WHEEL MOVEMENTS * CHANGE OF DIRECTION CAR BEHIND * BRAKE APPLICATIONS * CONTINUOUS TIME CAR PARKED RIGHT OR LEFT * DRIVING TIME CAR PASSING RIGHT OR LEFT PEDESTRIAN RIGHT, LEFT OR FRONT Figure 5. Schematic Representation of GreenshieldsT Driveometer Installed in an Automobile, and the Variables the Unit Measures. Figure 6. Photograph of Driveometer Installed in the Test Car Used in the Collection of Field Data. sW:::: —-- ---: -:::: _ W........... E, c*ls0; 00000000

-68 - r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........: t~~~~~~~~~t;000000000::0000: f 0 0' 0t;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......:; 00 0:: 0 0; f:;; d:::::;; 0:; 0:::::::0E': f::0:::::; _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......... 0 0' 0' {'. 0 i 0 0; t 0 0 0 43 0 0 0 0 i0 t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; AQ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.............'#.. i''.' | R f E::: R S i 0: u. f E E E E 7 i i: f f if E f E E E E i E i E iEE E E id E E E E E E E E E E iEE iEE E E E E "EE D iEE E iEEEE E E E E if~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.............: - I i''t"00''';:iXS,_N__ U.,w ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... v t:::,::. _ss ^,........................................,, A A A' A. ^ _ _.................. a.................... 0 0 0 i00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0; i0000 0 0 0 i000000 i;0 0 0 0 i0000000.................. t.,, g,A, E 0 0 0 0 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......................................::::::t:: ---:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........:............. i 0 ff 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 0000 0 E-E — -00-0000000 — X00000000 V N IN HO W..........00000000000..,.... -.-.....,S i,...,.........E E,........ E i 00 f;f,~ ~EEETEiEiEi~0f.fa: t00000,;,........... -. -, z:: D0:...................... —-—'""'_............." "............. _z.' "''~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........ Figure 8. Photograph of Interior of Test Car Showing Data~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......... Box Mc.).ted on Rear Seat. Mirror Mounted on~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... Rear o —Front Seat Provides Reflected-Image-of Highway.......etCr o amr outdo........ Behin..rSet

-69Figure 10 shows the inside of the data box with the sides and top removed, The four digit counter-register display panel is visible in the right center, while the traffic events keyboard is in the lower right hand corner. In the left center is a gyro compass which measures the change of vehicle direction. In the right background is an odometer and a speed registering unit which measures the distance and cumulative changes of speed. Plate I, Figure 11 is a view of the data box showing the 16 mm camera in the upper left-hand part of the picture. By means of a reflecting mirror and artificial light supplied by bulbs over the display panel, the camera takes photographs of the dials while the unit is in operation, The shutter of the camera is connected to an odometer which automatically causes the camera to take a photograph every one-tenth of a mileo The camera can also be actuated by a hand control switch on the top of the box which is visible in the upper right-hand corner of Plate I, Figure 11o Data Collection Procedure Shopping Trip Routes. —Using supermarket interview data, single purpose home-to-store-to-home trips were sorted from all others and redriven with the test vehicle, Two college students were usedo One was assigned as a permanent driver and the other as observer. The trip started in the street in front of the shopper's residenceo The route to the store was the same as the route recorded during the supermarket interview. Upon arrival at the supermarket parking lot, the car was brought to a halt at the parking location indicated during this interview. Data was read and recorded with the

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-72 — vehicle in this position. The test vehicle proceeded back to the residence retracing the shopper's route home where data was once again recorded. The data obtained from this procedure included the total values for the variables generated between the store and the shopper's home, as well as their periodic change every one-tenth of a mile recorded by the camerao The film record of the periodic change in variables also includes a notation indicating the values for the variables when the test vehicle moved from one functional classification of highway to anothero Arterial Highways — After the test vehicle substantially completed redriving the shoppers' routes to the supermarket, it was used in a program of arterial driving. Because of the variations in travel patterns along the arterials, it was desirable to divide each highway into sections for detailed studyo Table 5 shows the arterial highways and their respective divisions for which data was collectedo The time period from 7:30 AM to 9:00 PM was divided into six time intervals on the basis of similar traffic volumes as follows: 7:30 AM- 9:00 AM; 9:00 AM- 11:30 AM; 11:30 AM- 1:00 PM; 1:00 PM- 3:30 PM; 3:30 PM- 6:00 PM; and 6:00 PM- 9:00 PMo Since traffic variations by day of the week are not too dissimilar, four groups of days were selected for study. These included Monday, Friday, and Saturday as separate days with Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday combined into a single groupo The six time intervals and the four groups of days require twenty four sets of values to be developed for each section of arterial. Due to budget limitations, only those arterials within the range of travel to the supermarket were investigated.

-73Statistical Considerations Constants In the list of factors assumed to be constant for this study, there are some items enumerated which could vary with time. However, the field data was collected within a period of six weeks during the middle TABLE 5 SECTIONS OF URBAN ARTERIALS OVER WHICH THE TEST VEHICLE WAS OPERATED IN ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN E & W Stadium Blvd. Packard Rdo Jackson Rd-Liberty So Main-S. State Liberty-Pauline S. State-E. Stadium Pauline-Main E. Stadium-Supermarket One S. Main-White Supermarket One-Platt Rd. White-Packard Platt Rd-Carpenter Rd. Packard-Manchester Carpenter Rd (US 23) Washtenaw Washtenaw-Packard Hill-Manchester Washtenaw-Carpenter Rd. So Main Sto Pauline Packard-Pauline Wo Stadium-SO Main Pauline-Stadium of the summer and it was felt that no substantial changes took place within this relatively brief period. The factors listed apply to the entire city: (1) the road behavior of the shopper's automobile; (2) the geometric design of the urban street system; (3) parking facilities; (4) traffic regulations and traffic control devices in effect; (5) the safety

-74of highway movement; (6) zoning regulations which control the density and types of land use, and access thereto; (7) the general urban boundaries; (8) the goods and services offered in (a) the supermarket where shoppers were interviewed; (b) other stores of the same chain; and (c) other supermarkets of similar size within the market influence of the store where customers were interviewed; (9) for any individual shopper, his evaluation of shopping trip utility in relation to highway travel effort; and (10) the daily and weekly variation of highway traffic volumes on the arterial streets. Variables Table 6 is a summary of the variables which were recorded as a part of the single purpose home-to-store-home shopping tripso The driver actions and vehicle motions listed under measurement-type variables were also recorded as a part of the arterial driving program. Sample Size Shopping Trips For Test Sample. —It was desirable to define the spatial location of households from which trips to the supermarket originatedo With the location of supermarket one as the origin, a series of radial lines and concentric rings were laid out as indicated on the map in Figure 21, rear pocketo The basis for location of the radial lines was population densityo See Table 11 for distances between rings. The radii for the rings were influenced by the presumed discounting of functional: accessibility to the store with distance, The intersection of the radial lines and circles defined areas called sector-zones, The location of households where supermarket trips originated could thus be

TABLE 6 CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES RECORDED FOR THE HOME-STORE-HOME SUPERMARKET SHOPPING TRIPS Statistical Classification Phys ical Measurement-type Attribute-type Classification Variable Variable Individual 1, Radians of turning of steering 6. Sex and race wheel 7~ Place of employment 2. Reversals of steering wheel 8. Collect TV stamps? 3.5, Number of brake applications 9. Shopping in response to advertise4. Number of accelerator pedal ment? applications 10. Work address ( if any ) 5. Age of shopper 11. Regular shopper at supermarket interviewed? - 12. Driver or passenger in car? 15, If housewife, full or part time? Family 14, Number of persons involved 16. Home address in shopping trip 15, Size of family Vehicle 17, Total change in speed in MPH 19. Location parked in supermarket lot 18. Total change of direction in radians Trip Environment 20. Elapsed time consumed 24, Weather 21. Time in motion 25, Day of week trip was made 22.o Walking distance from car to door of supermarket 23. Time of day trip made Trip Utility 26. Distance 27. List of store type visited (supermarket)

-76spatially referenced to the store in terms of a sector-zone number. By inventory of the total number of households in each sector-zone, a proportion could be calculated for the probability of trips originating from any sector zone. See Table 7o The statistical controls for minimum sample sizes involved two considerations: (1) the total number of interviews completed at the store in relation to the number of households as represented by customers for the interview period: and (2) the number of single-purpose home-tostore-to-home trip origins by sector-zone in relation to the total number of interviews. The level of accuracy for (1) specified that the maximum likelihood value should be within ten per cent of the true value nine times out of ten and for (2) that the maximum likelihood value should be within twenty per cent of the true value two times out of threeo The values in column four, Table 7, meet these criteria. Test Car Data, —Budget and time limitations precluded redriving the shopper's route more than onceo The time limitation imposed on the operation of the test car was due to changes in traffic characteristics known to occur in Ann Arbor with the end of the University of Michigan Summer Sessiono For the same reasons, only one observation was made for each of the twenty four time-of-day and day-of-week cells associated with each section of urban arterial highway.

77 TABLE 7 SINGLE-PURPOSE AUTOMOBILE SHOPPING TRIPS PER THOUSAND HOUSEHOLDS BY SECTOR-ZONE Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maximum LikeSample Propor- lihood Esti- No. House- Trips (MLE) Sector-zone tion s-z) in % mate of Trips holds per per 1000 Sector-zone Sample n(s-z) (n(s-z) x 100 + N) (P(s-z) x U) Sector-zone Families 11 9 1.36 52.50 226 232.3 12 11 1.67 64.17 460 139.5 13 12 1.82 70.00 1644 42.6 14 1 0.15 5.83 1574 3.7 21 8 1.21 46.67 201 232.2 22 6 0.91 35.00 236 148.3 23 3 0.45 17.50 422 41.5 31 7 1.06 40.83 74 551.8 32 3 0.45 17.50 208 84.1 33 6 0.91 35.00 667 52.5 34 2 0.30 11.67 402 29.0 41 8 1.21 46.67 72 648.2 42 9 1.36 52.50 186 282.3 43 31 4.70 180.83 944 191.6 44 3 0.45 17.50 163 107.4 51 3 0.45 17.50 87 201.1 53 2 0.30 11.67 18 648.3 55 5 0.76 29.17 145 201.2 61 9 1.36 52.50 79 664.6 62 1 0.15 5.83 11 530.0 63 1 0.15 5.83 21 277.6 65 2 0.30 11.67 63 185.2 71 6 0.91 35.00 113 309.7 72 4 0.61 23.33 245 95.2 73 6 0.91 35.00 1393 25.1 81 2 0.30 11.67 82 142.3 82 18 2.73 105.00 509 206.3 83 8 1.21 46.67 1450 32.2 84 3 0.45 17.50 1799 9.7 85 1 0.15 5.83 1157 5.1 91 1 0.15 5.83 76 76.7 92 9 1.36 52.50 392 133.9 93 12 1.82 70.00 1933 36.2 Totals 212 32.12 1236.67 17,937 NOTE 1: The symbols used in the column headings are explained as follows: a. U is the universe of trips from which the sample interview was taken and is equal to the total number of households counted at Supermarket One for six day period (3850). b. N is the total number of trips interviewed at Supermarket One (660). c. n(s-z) is the number of trips interviewed at Supermarket One for each of the sector-zones. d. $(s-z) is the sample proportion of trips originating in any sector-zone and is an estimate of the true population proportion P(s-z).

CHAPTER IV DATA, ANALYSIS, AND CONCLUSIONS This chapter consists of a summary of the data collected in the supermarket interviews, a weather summary for the interview period, and average values for the variables measured by the Driveometer for shopping trip and arterial highway travel. The Driveometer data is analyzed for relationships to supermarket travel behavior and the possibility of constructing indices of effective distanceo Data Since the data collected is contained on the 660 individual Shopping Travel Inventory forms, pertinent sections of the Inventory form are summarized in Table 8. Table 8 indicates by hour of the day the total interviews completed and the household units counted during the twelve hour period from 9AM to 9PM for each of the six days, Thursday through Wednesday.. A grand total of 660 interviews were completed'and 3850 household units counted. The number of households counted at the supermarket interviewing station was very nearly equal to the total cash register sales. Table 9 indicates the classification of single purpose trips by mode of transportation. Nearly forty-eight per cent of all trips made to supermarket one were single purpose. This study did not contemplate redriving all single purpose trips, but only the home-to-store-to home tripso Table 10 shows a total of two hundred and sixty four single purpose trips. Of these, only two hundred and fifteen originated and terminated at the shopper's home -78

-79TABLE 8 HOURLY HOUSEHOLD UNIT AND CUSTOMER INTERVIEW COUNT1 Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Day of Week Total Total for Average/Hour Hour M Tu W Th F S 1 hr. Hour2 Time Period for Time Period 9 a.m. - 9 a.m. H.U. 23 22 26 28 36 58 193 I. 6 10 3 6 10 7 42 H.U. 670 268 10 a.m.- I. 137 H.U. 32 42 32 52 66 83 307 (Time Period 2) I. 10 12 10 8 12 12 64 11 a.m. H.U. 42 59 50 47 59 84 341 -- 11:30 a.m. I. 9 12 9 9 9 14 62 H.U. 499 333 12 noon I. 98 (Time Period 3) H.U. 40 36 37 58 73 84 328 I. 10 8 8 14 16 11 67 1 p.m. - - 1 p.m. H.U. 33 42 21 40 51 91 278 I. 10 6 3 7 12 11 49 H.U. 798 319 2 p.m. I. 120 (Time Period 4) H.U. 49 55 21 55 47 103 330 I. 7 9 6 8 8 7 45 3 p.m. H.U. 50 47 54 66 67 97 381 -3:30 p.m. I. 8 7 6 12 9 10 52 4 p.m. H.U. 1015 406 H.U. 53 43 60 64 80 75 375 I. 153 - I. 9 7 10 7 13 10 56 (Time Period 5) 5 p.m. H.U. 81 61 74 61 87 85 449 I. 13 13 12 11 12 10 71 6 p.m. 6 p.m. H.U. 46 46 48 36 54 67 297 I. 10 11 12 6 11 10 60 7 p.m. H.U. 868 290 H.U. 31 38 31 49 57 68 274 I. 152 I. 9 9 4 5 9 9 45 (Time Period 6) 8 p.m. H.U. 29 47 52 51 51 67 297 I. 6 5 9 10 9 8 47 9 p.m. 9 p.m. Totals H.U. 509 538 506 607 728 962 3850 I. 107 109 92 103 130 119 660 NOTE I: H.U. in table stands for household units counted and I. for interviews completed. NOTE 2: Time periods selected in this column are those for which the hourly street traffic volumes are not too dissimilar over the period.

-80TABLE 9 SUMMARY OF SINGLE PURPOSE SHOPPING TRIPS BY MODE OF TRANSPORTATION Mode Day Auto Walk Bus Bic'le Other Total Thu. 42 7 1 1 - 51 Fri. 63 6 - - - 69 Sat. 60 4 - 1 2 67 Mon. 35 6 - - - 41 Tues, 35 12 1 2 - 50 Wed. 32 5 - - - 37 Total 267 40 2 4 2 315 % of all Trips 40o5 6.1o 0.3 o.6 0.3 47.8 Included in the two hundred and fifteen trips were three for which the round trip travel distance was more than twenty five miles. This distance negated any assumption that the shopper's home base was within the maximum range of travel to the supermarket. These three trips were not used for further analysis. Table 11 references the shoppers T homes in terms of distance and direction from supermarket one. Weather Summary A record of weather conditions was maintained during the period of the investigationo However, since substantially pleasant weather prevailed during this period, there is no significant weather data~

-81TABLE 10 CLASSIFICATION OF SINGLE PURPOSE AUTOMOBILE TRIPS TO SUPERMARKET Classification Thu Fri Sat Mon Tu Wed Total Total, Either As Driver Or Passenger 42 61 59 35 35 32 264 Home-To-Store-Home Only, As Driver Or Passenger 38 50 52 25 29 21 215 TABLE 11 SECTOR-ZONE DISTRIBUTION OF THE HOME BASES FOR HOME-STORE-HOME SINGLE PURPOSE SHOPPING TRIPS TO SUPERMARKET Radial Distance By Zones Direction By (~ mi.) (1 mi.) (2 mi.) (3 mi.) (4 mi.) Sectors Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Total 1 9 11 12 1 - 33 2 8 6 3 - 17 3 7 3 6 2 18 4 8 9 31 3 - 51 5 3 - 2 - 5 10 6 9 1 1 -2 13 7 6 4 6 - 1 16 8 2 18 8 3 1 32 9 1 9 12 - 22 Total 53 61 81 9 8 212 Percent Of Total 25 28 8 38 4.5 3.7 100

-82Driveometer Data Shopping Trips The variables measured with the Driveometer for each shopping trip redriven were aggregated by sector-zone and average values computed for each variable. These are listed in Table 12. The sectorzones of column one show the effect on the variables of increased radial distance in each sector. There were some sector-zones from which no interview trips originated: five-two is an industrial area with no residences; five-four is agricultural with low population density; six-four is agricultural; and seven-four had no interview trips. Arterial Highways The Driveometer data for the arterials consists of three hundred and twelve measurements that include 2,184 individual values. Table 13 gives the data collected for the six time periods on a Monday for one arterial highway section. These measurements were made for the four groups of days for all arterials studied, Arterial Highway Intersections In measuring values for arterial travel, it was necessary to have values for turning movements. The intersection where the largest number of turns were made was East Stadium- Packard Roado This intersection was chosen for a trial investigation. Values measured with the Driveometer are shown in Table 14.

TABLE 12 AVERAGE ROUND-TRIP VALUES BY SECTOR-ZONE FOR VARIABLES MEASURED WITH TEST VEHICLE BETWEEN SHOPPER'S HOME AND SUPERMARKET Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col.Col. 1 2 5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Change of Sector Samnple Trips/1000 Accelerator Large Steering Change of Speed Direction Time in Motion Brake Elapsed Trip Zone Size Households Applications Wheel Reversals (MPH x 4) (Radians x 10) (Seconds) Applications Miles x 102 Time (Seconds) 11 9 12 2224 144 127199 16 115255 12 11 140 34 33 228 192 352 26 213 417 13 12 43 50 54 328 319 626 37 406717 14 1 4 101 85 297 418 1327 62 8011337 21 8 232 21 18 107 169 185 15 103 201 22 6 148 38 42 236 379 450 29 282524 23 3 42 51 59 186 399 625 32 418721 31 7 552 19 21 64 98 126 13 64138 32 3 84 50 45 207 272 519 38 360 542 33 6 53 44 38 187 275 566 17 481585 34 2 29 64 46 235 190718 20 595723 41 8 648 24 25 113 11516810 101182 42 9 282 27 40 125 164 255 18 212313 43 31 192 38 33 136 166402 14 363427 44 3 107 52 41 179 213 668 17 611715 51 3 201 18 23 117 81 145 11 84157 53 2 648 28 30 171 161 394 14 350439 55 5 201 74 100 280 284 873 26 821886 61 9 665 25 32 98 137 175 16 89187 62 1 530 30 22 149 178 254 22 180308 63 1 278 77 81 77 246 731 22 667897 65 2 185 64 116 219 241 1008 25 10451074 71 6 310 16 21 91 79 1115 65 129 72 4 95 29 22 175 149 281 17 195344 73 6 25 41 36181 245 530 29 4356 81 2 142 13 14 35 48 125 9 75135 82 18 206 27 26 132137 270 18 181 325 83 8 32 50 48 222 161 456 29 325536 84 3 10 79 69 245 266 877 38 6791031 85 1 5 85 63 87 313 1240 33 10951375 91 1 77 21 18 50 134 203 17 125255 92 9 134 29 35 236 148 317 23 242386 93 12 36 45 43 224 193 458 31 318557

TABLE 13 EXAMPLE OF DRIVEOMETER DATA COLLECTED FOR AN ARTERIAL HIGHWAY ON A TYPICAL MONDAY, JULY-AUGUST, 1962, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN (For Two Directions) PACKARD ROAD Change of Section of Time Accelerator Large Steering Change of Speed Direction Time in Motion Brake Arterial Period Applications Wheel Reversals (MPH x 4) (Radians x 10) (Seconds) Applications Miles x 102 1 33 24 61 27 308 11 189 2 21 22 96 16 307 12 188 State St. - 3 39 29 106 23 312 12 190 Stadium Blvd. 4 36 36 86 30 314 8 189 5 39 37 98 40 301 21 187 6 29 22 106 36 268 10 190 4-P Weekly Average 32.8 28.3 92.2 28.7 301.7 12.3 188.8 TABLE 14 AVERAGE DRIVEOMETER DATA FOR TURNING MOVEMENTS AT STADIUM BLVD-PACKARD ROAD INTERSECTION, AUGUST, 1962, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN Change of Change ofNumber of Arterial Direction Direction Time Accelerator Large Steering Speed Direction Time in Motion Brake Tines Highway of Travel of Turn Period Applications Wheel Reversals (MPH x 4) (Radians x 10) (Seconds) Applications Measured E. Stadium E R 4 2.6 2.4 9.0 14.6 8.4 1.4 5 E. Stadium W L 2 1.0.1.2 7.4 22.2 9.2 1.2 5 Packard Rd. NW R 2 3.6 1.2 6.6 20.6 6.8 1.2 5 Packard Rd. NW L 2 8.4 1.4 4.2 12.8 6.6 1.0 5

-85Analysis And Discussion Sample Adequacy The store interview sample of six hundred and sixty was more than adequate to satisfy the level of accuracy specified. The sample could have dropped to five hundred a nd still be satisfactory. Only one Driveometer measurement was made for each shopping trip redriven and for each of the twenty-four cells for the sections of the arterials. This single measurement is not adequate to statistically characterize the probable values. The level of accuracy specified for the individual sector-zone maximum likelihood estimate of trips was not achieved. However, in view of the high correlation coefficients obtained between sector-zone maximum likelihood estimates and field data collected with the test car, it was concluded that satisfactory results can be obtained with a lower level of accuracy. Store Interview Data It was felt that a satisfactory level of accuracy was obtained from the data enumerated on the Shopping Travel Inventory Form. Out of a total of six hundred and sixty interviews completed, only two were discarded because of improper home address. During the interview, customers drew their routes with little hesitation. In most cases, the customer's notion of the map location of his residence corresponded well with the physical location. Map routes to the store which appeared illogical prior to redriving were, in most instances, considered to be both reasonable and logical after redriving. Referring again to Table 8, the pattern of shopping trips is worth noting. At the bottom of column two, the daily totals indicate the variation by day of the week with Wednesday showing the fewest household

-86contacts and Saturday the greatest number, Wednesday is the only exception to a continual increase in volume from. Monday through Saturday. Column three shows the average hourly contactso The latter increases gradually until twelve noon, drops for two consecutive one-hour periods, after which it begins to rise again until it reaches the maximum for the nine hour period between five and six o'clock, Table 15 lists typical hourly variations for Ann Arbor vehicle volumes near supermarket oneo Comparison of street traffic volumes with supermarket household contacts suggests a similar pattern of hourly variationo Table 11 shows that over fifty per cent of all single purpose automobile trips originated within a one-mile radial distance from the store and ninety one per cent within two mileso Column ten of Table 12 further indicates that the maximum travel distance from home to supermarket one was five and one-half mileso For these reasons, in the analysis the maximum range for functional accessibility was considered to be six miles. This resulted in a four mile radial limit for the specific road configuration around the storeo Inspection of columns one and three, Table 12, shows a pattern of decrease in trip generation with an increase in radial distanceO There are some exceptions attributable to competing supermarkets, inconvenient access to store one, or lack of a convenient alternative store, Referring to the map in Figure 21, trip generations from sector-zones three-two, eight-one, and nine-one suggest an effect due to competing supermarketso Trip generation from seven-two is influenced by both access and competing store. The residents of sector-zones five-three and five-five have no convenient alternative for shopping other than store oneo

-87TABLE 15 SELECTED HIGHWAY INTERSECTION TRAFFIC VOLUMES1 ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN Intersection Intersection Intersection Stadium & South Main & Washtenaw & Packard Stadium Stadium Tuesday Wednesday Monday Hour Cars Cars Cars 7-8 1618 1972 1903 8-9 1743 1680 1704 9-10 1244 1075 1263 10-11 1292 1070 1243 11-12 1333 1292 1230 12-1 1692 1519 1402 1-2 146o 1210 1483 2-3 1348 1211 1473 3-4 1855 2218 1852 4-5 2178 2263 2250 5-6 2505 2325 2314 6-7 1518 16o8 1525 TOTAL 19786 19443 19642 1 Data furnished by the City of Ann Arbor, Michigano

-88Driveometer Data Effective Distance Of Travel To Supermarket Individual Driveometer Variableso —Referring to Table 12, when the shopping trip generation in column three is plotted against the variables in columns four through eleven, the result is a discounted functional accessibility curve. The variables are measurements for the effective distance of travel in relation to trip generation. Figure 12 Plates I through VIII show these relationships graphically. All of the graphs tend toward the same pattern but with different degrees of variabilityo Plate II depicting steering wheel reversals shows the least variability while Plate III-change of speed- and Plate IV- change of compass directionindicate the greatest variability. Referring to Plate II again, there are three points on the right side of the graph enclosed in a boxo These points represent values for sector-zones five-five, six-three, and six-fiveo These rural areas are generating more trips per household than the general trend indicates, The residents of these sector-zones are forced to accept the effective distance of travel to supermarket one for lack of a closer alternative, On the left side of the graph in Figure 12 Plate II, are three additional points set apart from the curveo These points represent values for sector-zones seven-two, eight-one and nine-one, and are reflecting the effect of the competing supermarket. The dotted line passing through the triangles is a plot of the power curve relating trips per one thousand households (Y) as a function of effective distance, measured in units of steering wheel

-89800 -,If-1 — ---- I, 800 * 600 rP 0Z a: Q0 400 I w rr C)L m 2 an - 800,-~200 ~ — -----— 0O 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 ACCELERATOR APPLICATIONS Figure 12, Plate I. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Acclerator Applications, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. 800 600 aQ~.~to ~ 4000 Y= x (Io Z a. 400 0 I^~~~~~~ \ N ~\ ON \ W 0 200 \ 8 ~* sTFFPiNJ(r WHEEL REVERSALS Figure 12, Plate II. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Steering Wheel Reversals, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.

-90600 0,~ Iz a. a. 0 400 I. Cn S - ~0 O 0 80 160 240 320 400 CUMULATIVE CHANGE OF SPEED (MPH x4) Figure 12, Plate III. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Cumulative Change of Speed in Miles Per Hour Times Four, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. 800 co 600a. 00 z a. 0= CO 400... tw Sr * 200* 0s1* 2 0 80 160 240 320 400 480 CUMULATIVE CHANGE OF COMPASS DIRECTION ( RADIANSxlO ) Figure 12, Plate IV. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Change of Compass Direction in Radians Times Ten, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.

-91800 o(0I** ** * ~ 6L 400 0 I0 L 400 0 C,) 200 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 TOTAL TIME IN MOTION (SECONDS) Figure 12, Plate V. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Total Time in Motion, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. 8000 600 0. Z 400. TOTAL TIME IN MOTION (SECONDS) Figure 12, Plate V. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Total Time in Motion, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. CS.Y- ~~e. 200 (I a* 0S 20 40 60 80 -00 BRAKE APPLICATIONS Figure 12, Plate VI. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Brake Applications, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.

-928001-. 600 * i. LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION Yo461. o0 z^ l l |R (COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION)" -0.855 z o. cO) i- ~ w S 200 0 200 400 600 1000 12 -.\.. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 DISTANCE TRAVELED (MILESxlOO) Figure 12, Plate VII. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Distance Traveled in Miles Times One Hundred, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. 800,,, I' 600 IEAST 1693.1'.LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION YE- 16953 C \ R(COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION)-O0.862 z400 0 I En w K 200 W 0 0 2 0 ~(-200' 400 600 800 1000~'"2 —'000 ELAPSED TIME (SECONDS) Figure 12, Plate VIII. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Elapsed Trip Time in Seconds, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each SectorZone to the Supermarket.

reversals (X), from which the following relationship is derived: 4000 3 (.10 ) With the exception of the three points above six hundred on the Y axis, the fit is good. These three points represent sector-zones adjacent to the supermarketo The explanation for the displacement of these points is as follows: the parking maneuvers in the lot next to the supermarket generated variables that were dependent upon the number the number of cars in the lot and the amount of traffic on Packard Road, both of which are related to the time of day; when the parking lot variables were examined as a separate group, they were found to be independent of effective distance or route traveled; thus for shopping trips of short effective distance, the parking and unparking maneuvers contributed a disproportionate share to the total measurements for the trip. If the values of the variables generated in the parking lot are subtracted from the total measurements for each trip, and the values again aggregated by sector-zone, the points above six hundred are no longer displaced from the general trend. However, since certain combinations of Driveometer variables were subsequently deemed to be better indices of effective distance, no further analysis of the individual variables was made. In order to make the above evaluation, Driveometer variables directly attributable to the supermarket parking lot were taken from the film record of the tripo These were aggregated by hour of the day to obtain average values. Table 16 shows examples of these variables for the parking loto

-94Indices Of Grouped Driveometer Variableso — Sum Of Driver Actions -The best plot of grouped variables in relation to shopping trip generation per one thousand households resulted when the driver actions were summedo Figure 12 Plate IX shows this graphically. Three of the five points above five hundred on the Y axis represent sector-zones adjacent to the store and the other two were developed from small sampleso In Figure 12 Plate X, values for the variables generated in the parking lot were subtracted from the total for the tripo In Plate XI, values for the driver actions were adjusted to an equivalent weekly average value in order to cancel the effect of hourly traffic variations on the driver actionso Data for Plates IX, X, and XI are listed in Table 17, columns one, four, and seveno Indices of the variables for the parking lot are shown in Table 18o In Plate X, it was assumed that the best fitting curve relating X and Y would be a power curve of the type C Y - n Xn Y where both C and n are constants determined from the field datao A quadratic parabola was also fitted to the data of Plate X with the following results: Y = 78602 - 10o59 X + 0~03545 x2o The coefficient of correlation R for the parabola is -0o77 indicating that the quadratic parabola accounts for a smaller amount of the total variance than does the power curve. Time Rate Of Driver Actions,-When driving an automobile, not only are the total driver actions important, but also important is the

-95TABLE 16 EXAMPLE OF AVERAGE HOURLY VALUES FOR PARKING LOT DRIVEOMETER VARIABLES Time Accelerator Large Steering Change of Speed Change of Direction Time in Motion Brake Period Applications Wheel Reversals (MPH x 4) (Radians x 10) (Seconds) Applications Miles x 102 9AM10AM 5.5 5.7 18.0 47.0 29.6 4.9 9.2 1PM2PM 6.9 7.5 34.1 42.9 37.2 3.8 10.1 4PM5PM 5.6 7.9 33.4 43.6 38.7 5.0 11.3 TABLE 17 INDICES OF DRIVEOMETER VARIABLES Total From Home Total From Home To Store But AdTotal From Home To Store Less Justed For Hourly To Store Parking Lot Traffic Variation Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. Col. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Driver Actions Vehicle Maneuver- Driver Actions Vehicle Maneuver- Driver Actions Vehicle ManeuverSector- Driver Per Minute of ing Per Mile of Driver Per Minute of ing Per Mile of Driver Per Minute of ing Per Mile of Zone Actions Round Trip Travel Round Trip Travel Actions Round Trip Travel Round Trip Travel Actions Round Trip Travel Round Trip Travel 11 62 14.51 179 47 12.98 195 60 12.06 195 12 92 13.30 380 73 11.30 403 94 11.91 402 13 141 11.83 822 123 11.06 847 142 11.13 847 14 248 11.13 921 232 11.16 935 233 9.46 929 21 54 16.26 156 39 13.65 172 54 13.53 169 22 109 12.52 738 93 10.87 758 113 11.14 758 23 143 11.91 568 116 10.21 583 140 9.68 582 31 52 22.79 59 34 21.43 67 53 21.61 67 32 133 14.75 376 119 14.00 387 138 14.47 387 33 99 10.16 278 86 9.16 282 97 8.89 282 34 129 10.71 241 105 9.14 244 136 10.11 245 41 59 19.55 104 33 16.66 113 58 16.25 112 42 85 16.27 135 69 14.89 141 84 14.61 141 43 86 12.02 118 69 10.21 121 82 9.42 120 44 109 9.17 199 94 8.27 198 108 7.98 201 51 52 19.78 79 34 18.22 87 51 17.58 88 53 72 9.77 153 58 7.02 156 68 6.34 156 55 200 13.52 382 186 12.95 385 200 13.19 385 61 72 23.27 124 47 20.78 137 72 20.68 137 62 71 14.42 202 52 12.20 215 73 12.09 214 63 180 13.55 1006 163 13.68 1027 182 13.89 1027 65 204 11.40 240 190 11.08 243 197 10.70 242 71 52 24.09 63 38 21.89 72 52 22.24 72 72 68 11.77 205 48 9.70 216 68 9.84 217 73 106 9.95 287 89 8.71 297 104 8.55 296 81 36 16.00 13 20 8.00 13 35 6.19 10 82 71 12.99 153 55 10.92 160 73 11.53 161 83 127 14.23 262 108 13.13 271 126 13.29 270 84 186 10.83 433 168 10.04 452 193 10.91 451 91 181 7.90 152 160 7.09 153 162 5.91 156 92 87 13.48 248 67 10.86 259 84 10.25 257 93 119 12.77 337 104 11.72 348 119 11.89 348

-96800 600 0 Cl 600r t ~* LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION y * 85.3 I-(b) l3.03 z X. R (COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION)- -0.891 0 400 cn ~0)~~ ~~ L. 0 50 I 00 i 150 200 250 DRIVER ACTIONS Figure 12, Plate IX. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Driver Actions, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. 800 600 Cl a._ \ * BEST GRAPHICAL SOLUTION Y-43.0'1''( )2.90 100 z LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION Y=( X 2.1 aS 100 O 400 C) \ R (COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION) =-0. 888 Iw / * \ w Se / -"<~- / 0. 0 50 100 150 200 250 DRIVER ACTIONS Figure 12, Plate X. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Driver Actions, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.

-97TABLE 18 AVERAGE DAILY INDICES OF DRIVEOMETER VARIABLES FOR PARKING LOT Col Col. Col. 1 2 3 Index A Index B Index C Distance Rate of Covariability of Driver Actions Per Vehicle Maneuvers Total Minute of Time of Per Mile of VehiTime of Driver Vehicle Operation cle Operation in Days Actions in Parking Lot Parking Lot 9-10 a.m, 16o27 39.67 12o76 10-11 17 25 34050 18.82 11-12 17o89 31o22 27539 12-1 p.m. 16.73 29533 25 97 1-2 18.20 30 48 26 11 2-3 14.29 42.99 28090 3-4 19.50 33507 25 66 4-5 18.64 33 70 22.42 5-6 16o50 270 4 28.65 6-7 18.79 31.07 21.10 7-8 16o57 29 76 22.10 8-9 13514 23010 17o06

-98time rate at which these actions are required. Figure 12 Plates XII, XIII, and XIV show the use of the time rate of driver actions as units of effective distance (X-axis). Data for these graphs is shown in Table 17, columns two, five and eight. The time is the elapsed trip time for driving to and from the supermarketo A drastic change in pattern has taken place. Plate XII suggests that the points may be tending toward a straight line. When the points plotted are identified by sector-zones, the graph indicates an inverse relationship between distance from the store and time rate of driver actionso Sum Of Time And Vehicle Motions -All of the foregoing indices involve driver actionso The manipulation of the operating controls of an automobile causes the car to either turn or to change speed. Using only these two variables, no significant relationship with shopping trip generation was discernableo But when time is added to the vehicle motions, the result is indicated in Figure 12, Plate XV. Data for this graph was taken from Table 12o While the relationship is good, the difficulty in using the sum of time and vehicle motions is that unlike characteristics are being added. In this instance, the sum involves time in seconds, turning in radians, and change in speed in miles per houro Moreover, there is the additional question of weighting each of the characteristics for the summing processo Aside from the problems of adding unlike units and deciding on weighting factors for each of the variables, the adding of these three quantities does seem to be reasonableo The variables represent quantities over which the driver can exercise a considerable amount of control, since

-99800 I'I) I ~~~~~I a. 0 400 m \ 80.0 x0 V Cr^ ~ e \,e b \ Figure 12, Plate XI. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households 8200 - - - -- - - /600*. / " I - I. / aY-623.3+ 57 / - ~~.xk.\ * — 0L 0 *//@00 -0 0 0 10 150 200 250 DRIVER ACTIONS Figure 12, Plate XI. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Number of Driver Actions, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking and Adjusted to the Weekly Average Highway Traffic Conditions, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. / / 0 u>~~~~~~~~~~~~/ -- /S I- 0 / E.* / */ 0 5 10 1/ 20 20 market Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone 0,__ _ __ i _ 0. 500....... 20 25 DRIVERe ACTON PE/INT Fiue1,PaeXI uemre hppn rp e n huadHueod Pe ee y eto-on n eato t heAerg Rae erMnue orDivr ctosInluig upr

-100800 z a00 I a 400 w. 200l *% 0 (...3 0 0 __________ —--- 0 5 10 15 20 25 DRIVER ACTIONS PER MINUTE Figure 12, Plate XIII. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Rate Per Minute For Driver Actions, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. 800 600 z 0. a. F. 400 -12, Plate --—. Suprmrkt —-----— er One.Thousand.Househol I 0 e 0) 0Q 1202 S 0 ~ 0 5 10 15 20 25 DRIVER ACTIONS PER MINUTE Figure 12, Plate XIV. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Rate Per Minute For Driver Actions, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking and Adjusted to the Weekly Average Highway Traffic Conditions, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.

- 101 - they are partially substitutable for each othero Thus it is quite likely that the driver may attempt to minimize the sum of the three in any given highway environmental situation. For example, travel time may be reduced for a certain trip by increasing the speed of travel. On the urban street system, increasing travel speed may produce an increase in acceleration, deceleration, and turning of the vehicleo Distance Rate Of Covariabilityo-If the vehicle turning in radians and the change in speed in miles per hour and the elapsed trip time are all multiplied together, and the product divided by travel distance, the result is a value which the author has labeled the distance rate of covariability. In a physical sense, the denominator is a measure of the spatial separation of the shopper from his intended objective for which units of the variables in the numerator must be expended. Figure 12 Plates XVI through XVIII indicate the use of this index as a measure of effective distance. The data for the graphs is found in Table 17, columns three, six, and nine. Neither the subtraction of the values of the variables for the parking lot, nor the correction for the hourly variation of traffic appeared to make any significant change in the pattern of the index. Sensitivity Of Effective Distance Indexes To Traffic Variations. —Any index composed of combinations of Driveometer variables should be sensitive enough to distinguish between two different highway environments at the same time of the day, or the same highway at different times of the day. The second of these requirements can be checked by taking a sectorzone from which shoppers used basically the same route to store one and

-102800 u 600: ~~ i LEAST SQUARES SOLUTION Y. 12,425 y(e.X) 2.37 z X R (COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION -0.842 0 U 400 ce * \ 200 \ "> * * 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 TIME AND VEHICLE MOTIONS Figure 12, Plate XV. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Time and Vehicle Motions, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. 800.. 8C 600 (L 03 Z Q. 0. I 1w.0 I E R O I II 0 0 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 DISTANCE RATE OF COVARIABILITY Figure 12, Plate XVI. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Distance Rate of Covariability, Including Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.

-103800 0) - 600 (I) (3 z UC) w 20 0. 0400, ~ 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 DISTANCE RATE OF COVARIABILITY Figure 12, Plate XVII. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Distance Rate of Covariability, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking, From Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket. 800.. fl-..,,600 z IO.- * CD w (.. w 20 -'28400 a.:3200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 DISTANCE RATE OF COVARIABILITY Figure 12, Plate XVIII. Supermarket Shopping Trips Per One Thousand Households Per Week by Sector-Zone in Relation to the Average Distance Rate of Covariability, Less Supermarket Parking and Unparking and Adjusted to the Weekly Average Highway Traffic Conditions, from Each Sector-Zone to the Supermarket.

104plotting the values of the indexes by hour of the dayo This was done for the residents for sector-zone four-three using the values of the Driveometer variables generated between the shopper's home and the supermarket. Figure 13, Plates I through IV, are the result of this techniqueo Both driver actions and the time rate of driver actions indicate a band of values. Arterial Highways The Driveometer measurements made on the arterials were translated into the same travel indices used in the analysis of the effective distance of travel for supermarket shopping tripso The values shown in Table 19 for each time period are the average of four observations made for the four groups of days. If neither time nor money were restricting factors, the six daily time periods should be divided into smaller intervals of ten minutesO These ten minute intervals should then be randomly sampled for the four groups of dayso It would be desirable to compare an index characterizing highway environment with the standard used to describe the loading and capacity of a highway, the number of motor vehicles per unit of time. The only current and publicly available data on Ann Arbor traffic volumes are given in Table 15 which outlines hourly trends. Inspection of Table 19 reveals that the indices reflect the time pattern variation of street traffic volumeso The first, third, and fifth time periods usually contain the peak values for the indiceso The indices have additional implications. Figure 14, Plate I is a plot of the time rate of driver actions, Index B, by hour of the day

-105TIME BLOCK 2 I TIME | TIME BLOCK 4 I TIME BLOCK 5 TIME BLOCK 6 I BLOCK 3 I I I I I I. I i 3 I 9 a.m. 10 11 12noon Ip.m. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 p.m. HOUR OF THE DAY Figure 13, Plate I. Variation of Driver Actions by Hour of the Day for Trips from Households in Sector-Zone 43 to Supermarket and Return. 18..0 1 r. B g! I i' TIME BLOCK 2 T I ME ITIME BLOCK 4 TIME BLOCK 5 TIME BLOCK 6 Figure 13, Plate II. Variation of the Time Rate of Driver Actions by 50 HOUR OF THE DAY~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Figure 13, Plate I. Variation of Driver Actions by Hour of the Day~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ for Tripe Train Households in Sector-Zone 43 to~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~Hu of th0a o rp fo oshlsi z~~~~~~~~~~~ ~etrZn 45t uermre.n Reur.-:'-:..

-106TIME BLOCK 2 ITIME BLOCK 31 TIME BLOCK 4 | TIME BLOCK 5 | TIME BLOCK 6 i I 1 ~500-': 1::: 9om 10 II 12 noon I pm 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9pm HOUR OF THE DAY Figure 13, Plate III. Variation of the Sum of Time and Vehicle Maneuvers by Hour of the Day for Trips from Households in Sector-Zone 45 to Supermarket and Return. 300 - l - \ - \ -- 1 --- - j - — T- - - i — 0 250 - TIME BLOCK 2 ITIME BLOCK 3 TIME BLOCK 4 TIME BLOCK5 J TIME BLOCK 6 0 I I * CL~~~~~ ) * /15~ I 050/ " I I I IU./ 1\ I. 50 /of Vehicle Maneuvering Alternatives by Hour of the Day for Trips from Households in Sector-Zone 43 to Supermarket and Return.

-107TABLE 19 INDICES OF DRIVEOMETER VARIABLES. FOR ARTERIAL PORTIONS OF THE ANN ARBOR URBAN STREET SYSTEM (SUMMARY FOR TWO-DIRECTIONS) Packard Road Driver Time Rate Dist. Rate Sections of Time Actions Drio Actions Covar. Arterial Period Arterial Period. Index A Index B Index C 1 55.2 15o6 19.1 2 47.2 1355 11.0 Main-State 3 57 8 17 2 19 1 4 57.8 14,1 24.7 5 55o3 1357 22.5 6 53.7 15.3 16.6 Weekly Average 54.2 14.7 18.7 1 65.0 15.8 10.6 2 6553 14.0 9 8 State- 5 87.2 19.6 22 8 Stadium 4 62 2 15.2 18.9 5 77.0 14.8 32.9 6 71.2 16.0 13.2 Weekly Average 70.6 15.3 18.1 1 55.7 19o0 3.4 2 26 7 16.2 2.2 Stadium- 3 340 8 20.9 2.5 Supermarket 2 4 26.0 14.2 1,o 6 5 31.7 21.0 2.0 6 28.7 16.2 3.1 Weekly Average 29.7 17o 5 2. 4 1 79.2 1352 4o3 2 95.3 15.4 5~9 Supermarket 2- 3 82.2 13o 3 10.7 Platt Road 4 7o 3 13.0 11.53 5 1035.53 17o 0 11.1 6 9353 15.2 9.0 Weekly Average 88. 9 14o 5 8. 7

TABLE 19 (CONT'D) TABLE 19 (CONT'D) Packard Road Stadium Blvd. Driver Time Rate Dist. Rate Driver Time Rate Dist. Rate Section of Time Actions Dri. Actions Covar. Section of Time Actions Dri. Actions Covar. Arterial Period ~~~~~~Arterial Period Arterial Period Index A Index B Index C Arterial Period Index A Index B Index C 1 44.8 13.0 1.3 1 30.5 14.2 2.3 2 63.0 17.8 4.6 2 28.0 11.2 3.0 Platt Road- 3 57.3 14.5 10.1 White- 3 29.8 14.1 2.6 Carpenter Rd. 4 48.5 12.6 3.5 Packard 4 24.7 12.2 3.6 5 75.2 18.9 6.1 5 24.7 11.0 2.2 6 62.5 15.9 3.6 6 30.8 12.1 3.5 Weekly Average 59.8 15.7 4.7 Weekly Average 27.9 12.2 3.0 1 58.2 14.3 6.2 Stadium Blvd. 2 64.0 13.3 11 Stadium —------- BPackard- 3 44.8 9.8 15.3 1 54.5 15.4 4.3 Manchester 4 47.8 10.9 8.4 2 36.7 16.3 3.3 5 65.3 13.9 8.3 Jackson Rd.- 3 30.0 13.8 3.6 6 41.5 10.1 8.0 Liberty 4 29.8 13.3 3.9 Weekly Average 53.5 12.0 9.3 5 49.2 24.7 5.5 6 44.3 20.5 11.2 Washtenaw Weekly Average 38.4 17.9 5.7 -6712 -------------— 67.7 —\10.4- -;4 1 66.7 12.5 6.1 1 67.7 10.4 7.4 271.0 13.3 12.2 2 80.3 11.9 18.6 Hill- 364.7 12.1 8.5 Liberty- 3 63.2 9.9 13.5 Manchester 476.0 13.0 17.8 Main 4 60.0 8.8 17.1 578.2 15.1 6 5 78.0 11.8 7.4 6 753 14.7 121 6 66.7 10.4 17.0 Weekly Average 7.0 1.6 Weekly Average 69.7 10.6 14.1 ____ 1 61.7 11.52. 1 29.5 13.7 2.9 2 72.8 12.3 11.0 2 35.0 17.2 2.9 Manchester- 3 59.3 10.3 11.6 Main-White 3 36.3 17.1 6.7 Carpenter 463.6 10.4 4 23.8 11.3 2.8 5 82.2 15.3 2.0 5 31.7 15.5 1.1 6 73.5 14.5.0 6 51.2 16.2 4.067551.80 Weekly6Average 51.0 15.2 5.2 Weekly Average 70.2 12.6 10.6 Weekly Average 31.0 15.2 3.2 ___ —----------------- NOTE 1: Time 1 7:30 - 9:00 a.m. 2 9:00 -11:30 a.m. 3 11:30 - 1:00 p.m. 4 1:00 - 3:30 p.m. 5 53:30 - 6:00 p.m. 6 6:00 - 9:00 p.m.

-109for a section of an urban arterial used by the residents of sector-zone four-three traveling to supermarket onee The rate increases in the morning reaching its peak during time period three. During this interval traffic congestion is also increasing but there still are opportunities for maneuveringo During period five, the great increase in traffic volumes has probably forced the driver to accept restricted movement within a platoon of vehicleso This has the effect of increasing his travel time, reducing vehicle maneuvers, and thereby decreasing the rateo During the sixth time period, vehicle volumes are decreasing, the driver again finds that he has some maneuvering alternatives, and his elapsed travel time decreases. This causes an increase in the time rate. Figure 1.4 Plate II, shows the extreme sensitivity of Index C, the distance rate of covariability, to changes in traffic conditionso The dotted line indicates a trend for the points plotted. Undoubtedly there is a range of values for this index, which could be determined by further field studies, Index A was omitted from Figure 14. Although the residents of sector-zone four-three used a common arterial, the distance and elapsed time for each trip variedo Thus the sum of driver actions alone was not meaningfulo Arterial Highway Intersections The Driveometer data collected at the East Stadium- Packard Road intersection was converted to Indices A, B, and Co The results are shown in Table 20. It was concluded that the variables generated in turning movements at arterial intersections were of sufficient magnitude to necessitate their consideration when measuring arterial travel.

-11015.0 ] —------'5 -0 r I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1,, I I I I w | TIME BLOCK 2 TIME BLOCK 31 TIME BLOCK 4 j TIME BLOCK 5 TIME BLOCK 6 13. 0::13:: 1 I o1 1...... I -~HOUR OF THE DAY Figure 14, Plate I. Variation of the Time Rate of Driver Actions by:::::: 50 I I I I j l I I. _ 9am 10 l 12noon 1pm 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9pm Hour of the Day for the Arterial Portion of Highway 50* i I..'L * I!::' ~ " I 9o r I0 Ipm 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9pm Hou r the Arterial Portion of Highway Trips from Households in Sector-Zone 43 to the Supermarket and Return. 50 I,,II 0 / I \ 0 / \ 1,,- l * I I\ < / - iW 0 \\0 z / / \ 9 10 II 12 1 23 45 6789 HOUR OF THE DAY

-111Travel Indices For Functional Highway Classifications Table 21 indicates that travel indices A, B, and C for the three functional classifications of highways and streets are quite different. The tabular values resulted from aggregating the shopping trip Driveometer variables by functional street classification. The table indicates that on the average, an arterial highway requires fewer driver actions and vehicle maneuvers per mile of travel, and fewer driver actions per minute of travel time than a residential street. It also shows that the residential street has the lowest average speed and requires the greatest number of driver actions per mile o~ per minute of travel. Index C is largest for rural roads but this figure is suspect due to the poor surface condition of the gravel rural roads at the time the field data was collected. The mean values reported in Table 21 were further investigated using an analysis of the variance within each of the indices. The hypothesis tested stated that the samples recorded for each of the functional street classifications within any one index are from populations with the same mean. At the five per cent level of significance this hypothesis was rejected for all three indices and we must conclude that there are differences among the means for each of the functional classifications within any one index. Next, the mean values in Table 21 within each of the indices were tested, two at a time, using the hypothesis that the sample values recorded are from populations with equal mean values. The hypothesis was accepted at the five per cent level for the following comparisons: index

-112TABLE 20 INDICES OF DRIVEOMETER VARIABLES FOR HIGHWAY TURNING MOVEMENTS (Typical Example) Intersection: West Stadium-Packard Road Time Rate Distance Driver of Driver Rate of Average Approach Leg Turning Actions Actions Covariability Average Distance & Direction Direction (Index A) (Index B) (Index C) Time Miles x 102 Stadium East R 6.4 45.7 221 8.4 5.6 Stadium East L 6.2 23.8 1140 15.6 5.9 Stadium West R 4.8 36.9 94 8.0 5.7 Stadium West L 3.4 22.1 302 9.2 5.8 Packard NW R 6.0 52.9 115 6.8 5.1 Packard NW L 10.8 98.2 71 6.6 5.8 Packard SE R 6.6 60.0 132 6.6 5.3 Packard SE L 4.3 23.0 22 11.2 5.7 TABLE 21 INDICES OF DRIVEOMETER VARIABLES BY FUNCTIONAL STREET CLASSIFICATION Driver Covariability Actions/ Rate of Vehicle Minute Maneuvers Index A Index B Index C Highway and Street Av. Trip Av. Speed Classification Per Trip Per Mile Length (mi.) (MPH) Residential 39.0 68.1 18.4 83.8 0.57 20.8 Arterial 36.2 27.6 12.7 38.4 1.31 27.4 Rural 100.0 20.7 11.6 100.0 4.83 35.0

-113A (per mile), rural versus arterial; and index C, residential versus rural. For all other comparisons the hypothesis was rejected. The principal reason for the acceptance of the hypothesis is the small sample size for rural tripso Simulating Driver Actions For Shopping Trips In redriving the shopping trips, sections of Packard Road and Stadium Boulevard were repeatedly used to gain access to the supermarket. Other collector streets joining residential neighborhoods to arterial outlets were used a number of timeso A more efficient technique for generating the Driveometer variables between the customers's home and the store would involve making a functional classification of the highways within the maximum range of travel to the store and operating the test car and Driveometer over these roadso Once the measurements are known between appropriate intersections for the urban highway net, travel indices can be synthesized from any origin to any destination within the maximum range. In order to check the feasibility of this technique it was decided to compare travel index A for the arterial portion of the shopping trip with the value of this same index using the variables measured during the arterial driving program. Figure 15 is a plot of Index A for the arterial portion of the shopping trip redriven with the test car against the appropriate value of Index A selected from Table 19o While there is considerable variability, a correspondence is indicated. Much of the variability may be due to the fact that the values from Table 19 are average weekly values for Index A, while the indices constructed from the shopping trips have all of the hourly and daily traffic variation includedo

-114In an effort to decrease the variability of Figure 15, all shopping trips redriven were classified according to the arterial used and the place of entrance and exit on the arterial~ This grouping resulted in fifty nine different arterial egress and ingress points. All. locations with two or less trips entering or leaving the arterial were discarded. Those points on the arterials with three or more trips entering or leaving were inspected for hourly and weekly distribution in an effort to obtain groups of trips representing weekly highway conditions. As a result of this classification, seventeen arterial access points were selected which included ninety two of the two hundred and twelve shopping tripso Round trips varied from three-quarters of a mile to four miles. The average value of Index A for each of the seventeen sections was calculated and plotted against appropriate values from Table l9o Figure 16 is the result, and indicates that much of the variability in Figure 15 has been reducedo On the average, the values of Index A obtained by using data from the arterial driving program were larger than the indices developed for the same arterial sections using data from the redriving of the shopping trip. The consistent bias in favor of the Xaxis cannot be explained without additional field measurementso On the basis of the above analysis for the simulation of driver actions on arterials, it would seem that the same technique could be applied to urban streets of other functional classifications. Conclusions This investigation was oriented toward the use of the Driveometer to measure the response of one driver to different highway environments and to determine if this response could be used to characterize the highway and to describe the travel behavior of customers to a supermarket.

-115r~ 80 D I 6os ~0 EH E u0 f 1~~~0~~~ 0)~ ~ MO2 * 0 * 0 0 ~ jo 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Estimated Arterial Driver Actions Based on Field Data Collected by Test Car Driving Arterial Highways Only Figure 15. Evaluation of the Technique for Estimating Arterial Driver Actions, Using a Plot of Actual Versus Estimated for Individual Trips. 6I~ 0A 00 R0ut ~4-' Hd HD 0 _-'P 20 0 Best Graphical Solution: Y=o.692X 7 F ig~Least Squares Solution: Y = 2.01 + o.66eX 0R(Coefficient of Correla tion) = +97 0 020 40 60 80 100 120 r E1 4dU0 a P Identical Arterial Routes.

-116The results of the study indicate that the Driveometer can be used to measure effective distance of highway travel. The Driveometer records variables that reflect differences in highway travel along one route, or between two different routes. These variables can be combined into indices that quantitatively denote these differences, and are thus measures of effective distanceo The best index is the sum of driver actions, and is a more meaningful expression for effective distance than either time or distance. When the Driveometer was used to record the cumulative driver responses for the highway routes used by shoppers traveling to the supermarket, it was found that the driver actions are inversely related to household contacts at the supermarket in the form of a power curveo This curve indicates the decrease in household contacts with increasing effective distance and is a discounting curve for the functional accessibility of the supermarketo Here again, driver actions are a more precise measure of effective distance in the discounting relationship than either time or distanceo When the urban highway system was classified according to the traffic service function, the mean values for driver actions per mile, driver actions per minute, and the distance rate of covariability were significantly different at the five per cent level for residential and arterial streetso The study also indicated that the driver actions recorded in a program of urban arterial driving can be used to estimate the average number of driver actions generated by groups of shoppers for the arterial portion of the highway net used for shopping trips.

-117The driver actions developed from the arterial driving program are consistently biased when compared with the arterial values generated by redriving the shopping trip routeso However, the two values can be linearly related.

APPENDICES -118

APPENDIX A SHOPPING TRAVEL INVENTORY FORM 1. Did you start this trip at either your home or at your place of work: Origin: Home; Work; Neither of these___ 2o After doing all the things you planned for this trip, will you end the trip at your home or your work place? Final Destination: Home; Work; School; Other___ 30 What other stops have you made prior to stopping at this store? (Specify in sequence) NONE-Circle if applicable Type of Purpose Parking of Stop Type of Place Location (Address) (code) Location where parked (code) (1).. (2) (3) (4) (5) Stop Code: Parking Code: 1 = Shopping A = Street curb free G = Garage pay 2 = Work B = Street curb meter H = Car service or repair 3 = Personal business C = Lot-free J = Cruising 4 = Social-recreational D = Lot pay-attendant K = Standing 5 = Serving passenger E = Lot pay-meter L = Not parked 6 = Other (explain) F = Garage free M = Other (explain) 40 What stops do you intend to make after leaving this store: (Specify in sequence) NONE - Circle if applicable -119

-120Where do you plan to park? Purpose Type of Parking of Stop Type of Place Location (Address) Location (code) (code) (1) (2) 5. Did you come by car? a. Automobile as the driver or as a passenger (check two) (1) If as a passenger who was the driver~ Male Female (circle one) (2) If by automobile mark location where parked on attached sketch, (5) How many people came in the car with you? (number) (4) How many people who came with you in the vehicle will make separate or individual purchases at thisstore? bo Walking, Co Bus, do Bicycle 9 e. Other (Specify) 60 How long has it been since you last visited this store: Yrs. __; Months; Weeks; Days__ 7o Do you collect Kroger TV stamps? Yes_ No; Have you ever turned in the Kroger TV stamps for some merchandise? Yes No 80 Are you shopping at this store in response to an advertisement in the newspaper? Yes No__ 9. How many persons are there in your family who are living together and sharing the same household facilities: Adults (Sixteen and over): 1 2 3 4 5 Children (Under sixteen): 1 2 3 4 5 10. Is interviewee Male; if female indicate whether she is Female Yes Housewife: full time, part time No 11. Work address: NONE type of place Location (address) circle 12. Home address:_______________________ Number Street RED Route City

-12113. Interviewer: Mark on the attached map the precise highway route used by the shopper in getting to this store. 14. Interviewer: Indicate the following about the shopper: Approx.o age; Race W N M 15. Interviewer: Indicate precise location parked on parking lot sketch, (Name of interviewer) (Name of recorder) (Time interview concluded)

-122m ~w 0 0 KROGER'S Ix SUPERMARKET \ z (STORE NO.1) _) = = H

APPENDIX B WEATHER MATRIX FOR. CHARACTERIZING CLIMATIC CONDITIONS A B C 0 No visible clouds in the Light fog Stopped drizzling within the sky past hour. No freezing. 1 Clouds visible but gener- Patches of shallow fog Stopped raining within the ally disappearing past hour. No freezing. 2 Clouds visible, but no More or less continuous Stopped snowing within past change in the visible shallow fog hour. No rain in the state of the sky snow. 5 Clouds generally forming Lightning visible, no Stopped raining and snowing or developing thunder heard (combined) within past hour. 4 Visibility reduced by smoke Rain in sight in distance, Freezing rain or freezing but not on ground at drizzle stopped within observer' location past hour. 5 Haze Rain showers stopped within preceding hour. 6 Widespread dust suspension Hail, or wind and hail, in the air, but not stopped within previous raised by wind hour. 7 Dust or sand raised by Thunder heard, but no prewind cipitation at observer's location

A B C 8 Dust swirls Rain squalls within sight Fog present during preceding hour, but which has presently cleared. 9 Dust or sand storm going Funnel clouds within sight Thunderstorm within the preon or in sight vious hour. D E F 0 Slight or moderate dust or Fog, but only in the dis- Slight intermittent drizzle sand storm tance and not locally 1 Severe dust storm Fog in patches Very light continuous driz zle 2 Slight or moderate low Fog, with sky visible, but Moderate intermittent driz" drifting snow with fog becoming thinner zle 5 Heavy drifting snow, not Fog, with sky not visible, Moderate continuous drizzle very high with fog becoming thinner 4 Slight or moderate drift- Fog, sky visible, with no Heavy intermittent drizzle ing snow, generally high change in preceding hour 5 Heavy drifting snow, gen- Fog, sky visible, but be- Heavy continuous drizzle erally high coming thicker

D E F 6 Fog, sky not visible and. Slight freezing drizzle. becoming thicker during preceding hour 7 Moderate freezing drizzle, 8 Rain and drizzle, slight. 9 Drizzle and rain, heavy. G H I 0 Slight intermittent rain Intermittent fall of snow- Slight rain showers. flakes, small in amount 1 Continuous rain, but in Continuous fall of snow- Moderate to heavy rain small amounts flakes, small in amount showers. 2 Intermittent rain, but Intermittent fall of snow- Violent rain showers. in moderate amounts flakes, in moderate amounts 3 Continuous rain in Continuous fall of snow- Slight showers of rain and moderate amounts flakes, in moderate snow mixed. amounts

G H I 4 Intermittent rain, heavy Intermittent fall of snow- Moderate to heavy showers amounts flakes, in heavy amounts of rain and snow mixed. 5 Continuous rain in heavy Continuous fall of snow- Slight snow showers. amounts flakes, in heavy amounts 6 Slight Moderate to heavy snow showers. 7 Moderate to heavy freezing Slight hail rain 8 Rain or drizzle and snow, Moderate to heavy hail slight 9 Rain or drizzle, and snow, moderate to heavy amounts

APPENDIX C SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF KEYBOARD CONTROL PANEL All of the counter-register dials listed below are controlled by hand switches on the keyboard that measure the total number of seconds that a given traffic event continues to occur. A B C D E Car in Car approach- Two or more Total time Car in intersection ing in oppos- cars ahead. of runo intersection on the left. ing lane or on the right. lanes. M F N Cars parked At least one Cars parked on on the left. car ahead, the right. 0 G H X Not used. A car passing A car pass- Not used. on the left. ing on the right. Test Vehicle Q I R Not used. At least one Not usedo car following. J K L Pedestrians Pedestrians Pedestrians on the left. crossing in on the right. fronto -127

APPENDIX D SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF DISPLAY PANEL FOR COUNTER-REGISTER DIALS All Dials Read in Seconds Except X - 1 - 2 -3 4 - 6 (These give an absolute count or indicated conversion) A B C D E Car in Car approach- Two or more Total time Car in intersection ing on oppos- cars ahead. of runo intersection on the left. ing lane or on the right. lanes 1 0 F 5 6 Count of the Not usedo At least one Total time Counts the No. Noo of times car ahead. car is in of times the the accelerator motion~ brake is deis depressed pressed and reand released. leased. 2 G M N H Measures A car passing Cars parked Cars parked A car passing large steer- on the lefto on the lefto on the right on the righto ing wheel reversals. 3 X I Q R Measures Not usedo At least one Not usedo Not usedo change of car followingo speedo(multiplied x 4) 4 J K L Measures Pedestrians Pedestrians Pedestrians Watch change of on the left. crossing in on the righto directiono front. (multiplied x 10) ODO Odometer Standard Odo measures miles and tenthso -128

BIBLIOGRAPHY lo Black, Therel and Jerrilyn Blacko "Some Sociological Considerations in Highway Development, " National Research Council. Highway Research Board Bulletin, 169 (1957), 51-59. 2. Branham, Ao Ko and Others. "Economic Evaluation of Two Indiana Bypasses," National Research Council. Highway Research Board Bulletin, 67 (1953), 1-14. 35 Breese, Gerald and Dorothy Eo Whiteman, eds. An Approach to Urban Planning. Bureau of Urban Research, Princeton Universityo Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 19535 4. Christaller, Walter. Die zentralen Orte in Suddeutschlando Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag, 193355 5. Cole, William E. Urban Society. Cambridgeo The Riverside, Press, 1958. 6. Department of City and Regional Planning, University of California, Berkeley. Moving People in Metropolitan Areaso Proceedings, Second Annual University of California Conference on City and Regional Planning, 1954. 7o Detroit Metropolitan Area Traffic Study. Part I and IIo Lansing, Michigan: Speaker-Hines and Thomas, 1955. 80 Editorial Committee, Urban Planning Conferences at Evergreen Houseo Report of the Urban Planning Conferences Under the Auspices of the Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1944. 9. Editors of Fortune Magazine. The Exploding Metropoliso Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1957. 10o Ely, Richard To and George So Wehrweino Land Economicso New York: Macmillan, 1940o 11o Friedrich, Carl Jo Alfred Weber s Theory of the Location of Industries. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929. 12. Garrison, William Lo and Otherso Studies of Highway Development and Geographic Change. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1959. 135 Haig, Robert Mo Major Economic Factors in Metropolitan Growth and Arrangement: Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs, Volo Io New York: Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, 1927. -129

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-133HIGHWAY, ARTERIAL & RESIDENTIAL STREET PATTERN ANN ARBOR AREA _'~.aa EXPRESSWY ~ @,, - COLLECTOR /| r —,,-,.RESIDENTIAL._ _ _ -- " — - RURAL SURVEYED SUPERMARKETS - l * *.,:__ _.. MILES Figure 18.

-134POPULATION DISTRIBUTION ANN ARBOR AREA 12 SECTOR BOUNDARY a 2 4 MILES -- ---- --- - - ---------— _______________ _____.R. DESKINS4R. 96 SOURCE — CENSUS BLOCK STATISTICS -------- 75 74 73 33 62 i 423 4.......... ~- - - - - - I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5'"5~;'.'-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 ONE DOT REPRESENTS 25 PERSONS~~~~~~~~(.~.... ON CIRCLE... RERSET''0PROS OMTRE LIVING~~~~~~~~~~~ GRUP'5 SUREYE SUPERARKET 12 SCTOR BOUNARY,, NUBE

-135GENERALIZED LAND USE ANN ARBOR AREA ___F______- ~ 4. uawu -. —--- RECREATIONAL D AGRICULTURAL, VACANT S UNCLASSIFIED I_ -— _ —jtirf* 4' _J__pgtj__p_ —-- A J —_ --- -5 tw — SURVEYED SUPERMARKETS O0 __12______ 12N MI LES Figure 20.

-136ORIGINS OF SINGLE PURPOSE AUTO TRIPS ANN ARBOR AREA, 3, 21: _ _, ~,, - -- --— ^ -^ —----- -— ^ —---—' —74 SUERARE ON 7 1 3O 34> M I LIES 62 ~ ~ ~ A Figure 21. /~~~~~~~~~~~~ i 52~~~~~~~ 63 3',..... 53~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i3 54 01~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L-' —— __, —..... I N OT R ERSECTOR BOUDRIGI ONUMBERP