Division of Research Graduate School of Business Administration The University of Michigan GENERATING IDEAS FOR NEW PRODUCTS: A TYPOLOGY OF TECHNIQUES Working Paper No. 154 by C. Merle Crawford and Philip E. Hendrix August 1977 i The University of Michigan O 1977 by The University of Michigan FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES ONLY None of this material is to be quoted or reproduced without the express permission of the Division of Research.

Generating Ideas for New Products: A Typclogy of Techniques Marketing management today benefits from a rapidly accelerating quantity and rising quality of professional activity on the general subject of product development. We have new 1 2 3 periodicals, new books, and a new organization. Research activity has been stimulated on almost every facet of that topic, evidence of the important role new products play in most firm's marketing programs today. One phase of the overall process, however, and a seemingly critical one, has not benefited from this surge of activity — the step where creative persons in highly stimulating environments endeavor to generate ideas for new products consistent with the strategies of their firms. The idea generation process is inadequately researched, inadequately understood, and inadequately communicated. Occasionally (really rarely) new approaches are announced, sometimes promoted by a commercial source or almost silently described in some scholarly journal, and people are encouraged to "try it". Serious evaluative efforts are practically nonexistent, leaving managers of idea generation to operate in an atmosphere of folklore and speculation. Research Needed It appears unquestionable that research is badly needed — research that would report the current usage rate of all known idea-generating techniques and evaluate their effectiveness in

-2 -various typical new product situations. But up until now we haven't even had a complete list of available techniques, let alone a useful typology, so research was undertaken to develop both the list and a typology; the task was more difficult than expected. Since creativity is of interest in many disciplines, and since people studying creativity tend to be creative themselves, it should not be surprising that our search took us through business literature, into psychology, education, engineering, sociology, and other fields. Many of the techniques we encountered were not actually developed for use in product development, but have later been used in such a capacity. In fact this dispersion of effort is one of several reasons we see for the poor state of practice and research in this segment of product development. Product developers are not regularly and systematically exposed to these many diverse literature sources. As a result we found idea-generating techniques that are unique and interesting but which apparently have never appeared in the product development literature and perhaps have never been used in industry. A second reason for the low apparent state of the art of generating product ideas is that, although many idea-generating techniques are employed in industry today, inter-firm communication is quite restricted. Firms are apparently reluctant to share information on this subject, or else they simply don't have much information to share. In addition,

-3 -the specter of anti-trust is ever present, particularly in a function such as product development. Third, evaluating different idea-generating techniques is extremely difficult. Different approaches can be (and have been) tested in generalized, non-product creativity situations (e.g., psychology classrooms) and these evaluations are admittedly sterile for business. But testing two or more approaches in a product setting would produce two or more lists of product ideas, one from each approach, and evaluating the salabilty or profitability of all products on each list is simply not a realistic assignment. These three restrictions have effectively retarded the utilization of new idea-generating techniques in product development. Until they are circumvented, the situation may not be amenable to correction. But it does seem that the problem of awareness could be eased by a presentation of the full list of known techniques —what is available, regardless of disciplineof origin. The Typology Exhibit 1, the primary body of this report, provides such a listing. The format of presentation is purposely designed to facilitate use, with all techniques listed under their respective headings, and each accompanied by an explanation, a reference, and a sample application. The explanations are necessarily brief, because of space limitations, and convey only the essence of each technique.

-4 -For many of them, the explanation provided will suffice, but for others we strongly urge consulting the listed reference before attempting to use the technique. In some cases the listed reference cites still other sources for information on that technique; we have used the criteria of source availability, applicability, depth and breadth of coverage, extent of documentation, and recency, to choose the one or two listed. For a few of the techniques there simply is no reference cited —either the approach is so well known from general usage that a user wouldn't need a full discussion (e.g., the survey) or no source could be found which gave more than the brief explanation provided here. Beyond those references cited in the Exhibit and documented in full in the attached Bibliography, we found a few publications which can be identified as good general sources, and they are also listed in the Bibliography. Finally, we should explain the principle of typology used. Research shows that most of the techniques were developed with one of five basic principles of idea-generation in mind. Since the principles relate to the manner of activity involved in the creative effort, they have provided an arrangement equally wellsuited to our objective of maximizing the usefulness of the compendium. Naturally, human inventiveness has also produced some techniques which defy this arrangement (and any other, apparently) and they are simply listed as Miscellaneous. The five principles are as follows.

-5 -1. Attribute Analysis. Some analysts feel that any method which forces the idea seeker to examine currently available products from different perspectives stimulates creativity. To date, these various perspectives have included physical dimensions, functions, and benefits, among others. 2. Generic Need Assessment. Others have opted to look at the user of the product or the person who has a need to fulfill. Comparing the generic class of needs with products currently available suggests avenues for development. Sometimes these techniques for assessing generic need have differed by type of data collected and sometimes by method of data collection. They overlap some, but we have listed them as reported by practitioners. 3. Matrix Analysis. Some investigators took the attribute listings described earlier and used the matrix concept to force comparisons, item by item. Others added nonattribute listings as well. The resulting methods range from the very simple to a complexity that only a computer can handle.

-6 -4. Scenario Analysis. Since both the product and its usage (need) are at least partly a function of the environment, another approach is to forecast the environment and then deduce new product ideas from that. From this concept have come both static and dynamic analyses, in a variety of forms. 5. Group Creativity. Commonly credited to Alex Osborn, but actually traceable back at least four hundred years to India, is the idea that two heads are better than one for generating ideas. Groups can use any of the other techniques, of course, but several creations are useable only by groups and are designed to capitalize on the synergism of multiple minds effectively coordinated. These five basic approaches have yielded thirty-eight of the fifty-six techniques, and we feel the categories minimize within-group variation while maximizing between-group differences to the extent possible at this time. For purposes of clarification and facilitating trial usage of the techniques, we have prepared an "application" column for the Exhibit. Each technique is applied as a manufacturer of bicycles might apply it.

-7 -Notes 1. For example, the new Product Marketing and the now widely available Research Management. 2. Specifically, the second edition of Spitz's Product Planning, Rothberg's Corporate Strategy and Product Innovation, Hise's Product/Service Strategy, Pessemier's Product Management, Scheuing's New Product Management, King's Developing New Brands, Midgley's Innovation and New Product Marketing, and Wills et al.'s Creating and Marketing New Products. 3. The Product Development and Management Association. 4. See the following in the Bibliography: The Conference Board (1972), Davis and Scott (1971), Manufacturing Group 25 (1959), Osborn (1963), Parnes & Harding (1962), Simberg (1964), Stein (1974), Von Fange (1959), and Whiting (1958). A comprehensive bibliography on the entire subject of creativity is Albert Rothenberg, and Bette Greenberg, The Index of Scientific Writings on Creativity, (Hamden, Conn.: Shoe String Press, 1976).

Exhibit 1 TECHNIQUES FOR STIMULATING PRODUCT IDEA GENERATION ATTRIBUTE ANALYSIS - Viewing the product from a variety of perspectives and seeking improvements along each suggested avenue. TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION DIMENSION/ATTRIBUTE ANALYSIS Product dimensions include materials of manu- Crawford List every part of the bicycle, such facture, methods of fabrication, and physical (1950 & as wheel, seat, chair, etc., and then characteristics. For any dimension,.11 attri- 1964) for each part list the attributes. butes are listed and studied. Questions such For the seat, width, softness, thickas "Why is it this way?" and "How could it be ness, durability, then challenge each changed?" are posed. Value Analysis an example, one. FUNCTION ANALYSIS A variety of dimension/attribute analysis ucil- Lanitis, The bicycle moves, holds, -restrains, izing the product's functions rather than its p. 34 stops, etc. A full listing encomcharacteristics. The listing and analysis are passes a considerable number of done in the same manner. functions. BENEFIT ANALYSIS List all benefits (direct and indirect) which * A bicycle provides transportation, are associated with use of the product. Some recreation, exercise, thrills, overlap will exist between functions and bene- savings, invigoration, independence, fits, but key aspects will emerge which were etc. not apparent above. ATTRIBUTE EXTENSION Also called Parameter Analysis. Focuses on Quinn One could plot the increasing number any attribute where there has been change of gears, the declining size of the over time. Past is plotted and the trend tire, or the steady diminution of is extrapolated, with implications readily the seat. appearing. PSEUDO PRODUCT TEST Essentially a projective technique. Product King(1973) Any brand identification is removed is dis-branded and presented to a group of p. 102 from the bicycle, which is then preusers as a new product for trial. Users are sented to a group of users as a new asked to list every attribute the product experimental model. They are asked has. Users will tend to ascribe to the prod- to describe (not evaluate) it in full uct those attributes they hope a new product detail. will have. SYSTEMS ANALYSIS List and examine all the inputs and outputs Bujake Viewing the bicycle as an energy of a physical system that involves the transfer system suggests a means whereproduct area. Attempt to improve the effi- by energy is stored for future use, clency of the system by developing new prod- e.g., coasting downhill contributes uct ideas. energy to a device which assists you up the next hill. REPERTORY GRID A technique designed to identify all attrl- King (In This approach might initially identify butes of a given product category. Partic- Wills) such obvious attributes as size, color, ipants in the process are shown three brands p. 95 absence or presence of cross bar, numor models of the product, selected randomly, ber of speeds, etc., but eventually and asked in what way two are similar and uncover more subtle attributes-sleekthe third different. ness, individuality, etc. GENERIC NEED ASSESSMENT - The listing or analysis of the product user's perceptions of needs fulfilled (or not fulfilled) by a generic class of products. Unmet needs offer the inspiration sought. TECHNIQUES DIFFERING BY THE NATURE OF THE NEED TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION COMPOSITE LISTING Simply list all basic needs (or wants) in the Holt However compiled, a listing of every general product category under study. Needs p. 28 need conceivably related to bicycles are probed at great length, phrased many might include transport, pride, sedifferent ways, compared and contrasted, etc. curlty, accomplishment, adventure, etc. -8 -

TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION PROBLEM INVENTORY Rather than listing all relevant needs, iden- King Investigators might find that users tify those needs currently unmet. The focus (1973) have little identification with the on problems is a more intensive approach than Tauber product area of bicycles, and proceed above, designed to trigger different product from there. thinking. GAP ANALYSIS Multidimensional scaling and perceptual mapping King The dimensions may turn out to be are used to uncover product dimensions oi im- (1973) weight, durability, and origin. Gap portance to the consumer and to plot _xlsting analysis might suggest an opportunity products within this space. Gaps are revealed for the Volkswagen of bicycles. which may represent product opportunities. When utilizing a single dimension, this approach has been called Spectrum Analysis. Rarely, however, does a single dimension accurately portray the product space. TECHNIQUES DIFFERING BY THE NATURE OF THF NEED ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION SURVEY As the name implies, this approach involves The investigators could interview conasking typical consumers in the product sumers, perhaps on location in a shopcategory to identify their own needs and ping mall, send them a questionnaire wants. A small sample size may be suffi- in the mail, or conduct the survey by cient to achieve the goal. telephone. USER OBSERVATION Consumers are observed in their usual surround- ** Investigators might station themselves ings or in elaborate research facilities as in the display area of a number of bithey go about buying and using the product cycle shops and observe consumers durunder study. This technique is most useful in ing the purchase process. The behaviors identifying needs or wants that the consumer are noted and later analyzed for clues. is either unable or unwilling to disclose. FOCUS GROUP A relatively small group of users or potential Conference Six or eight cyclists meet with the users would be assembled and, guided by an ex- Board group leader and discuss cycling... perlenced focus-group leader, explore relevant p. 29 "Why did you buy the bike you did?" topics. The focus group is often used as a "How often do you ride?" "Why don't substitute for a full field survey, partlcu- you ride more?" larly by those who are only seeking ideas and not their quantitative validation. ROLE PLAYING The purchase and/or use of some products is Stein, I The investigator might go shopping characterized by a high degree of emotional p. 63 for bicycles, perhaps purchase a involvement, particularly where Interpersonal few, ride one of the firm's products relationships enter in. Consumers may be un- to a major rally, take one in for able or unwilling to express their true feel- repair, or just imagine riding a biings-particularly those which are felt to be cycle to and from a variety of places. too revealing. To overcome this, idea seekers This is a direct reach for delicate assume the role of the consumer, attempting to nuances, perhaps why the Norwegians uncover the underlying emotions which charac- call it Need Confrontation; the Brltterlze the purchase or use of a product. ish call it play acting or reconstruction. PERIODIC ATTITUDE AUDIT Some product developers wish to add a temporal * The investigator might conduct focus dimension to the ideas obtained from the sur- groups on an on-going basis, survey vey, observation, or focus group study. As consumers at different times of the the name implies, the assessment is made peri- year, or observe purchase behavior in odically, enabling the investigators to compare varying seasons, i.e., Spring, Christand contrast data from different time periods, mas, etc. This replication brings an construct trend lines, etc. By providing a added dimension of usefulness to the relative base, the periodic audit of attitudes idea seeker. illuminates small percentage changes which the one-time audit might miss. -9 -

MATRIX ANALYSIS - Formation and examination of "cells" representing combinations of various elements or dimensions of the products under study. TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION TWO-DIMENSIONAL Every product or product use situation may Alford A matrix might be constructed for by characterized by a number of key variables. and the bicycle using occupation of These variables are highly situational, buc Mason user and mechanical features as axes. typically include product features, produ.t Each of these variable's elements functions, product benefits, process of nanu- are then listed. Somewhere in the facture, allied product types, activity of resulting matrix is the cell joining user, user type, user need, etc. The variables central city delivery service and are taken two at a time and their elements number of wheels. Perhaps a threelisted along the respective axes of a two- or four-wheeler for safety, maneudimensional matrix. The resulting cells are verability, etc. then examined for leads. MULTI-DIMENSIONAL Matrix analysis can be extended by considering * A four-dimensional matrix whose axes the combinations of elements of three Jr more are bicycle features, material, user, variables at a time. The number of cells can and color might yield a cell such as quickly become unwieldly unless a computer is black handlebars made of hard rubber used to identify the resulting combinations. for older persons. Perspectives which an idea seeker would have never considered are suggested. MORPHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Matrix analysis in its extreme form-comblna- Zwicky Such an analysis incorporating all tions of all elements of all variables taken I elements of all the major and relesimultaneously-was proposed and used by Frltz 2i vant variables associated with the Zwicky. His original work was with power. bicycle could easily result in an plants for aircrafts in which he generated incredible number of cells. Obviously, 576 alternatives for consideration. a computer is essential. SCENARIO ANALYSIS - A future setting is stipulated and the implications of that setting for the product category under study are deduced. TECHNIQUES CLASSIFIED BY SOURCE OF SCENARIO TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION BIG DREAM The scenario may be arrived at by posing the Manufac- We might envision the closing of all following questions: "What do we most want turlng urban areas to automobile traffic to happen?" "If it did, what would the con- Group and proceed from there. Or perhaps ditions be like?" In completing the scenario, 2 a future in which ownership is extinct. the key is to identify the implications for. 118 Obviously, the scale of the Big Dream your products. Simberg is a variable to be manipulated. p. 120 SEED TRENDS This approach involves identifying Seed Trends Marketing Trends which miqht qualify as Seed -trends so important as to determine many Insights Trends for a bicycle manufacturer other trends as well-and projecting them into include the lengthening of the life the future. These may be synthesized into a span, increasing homogeneity of the picture relevant to the product under study. world population, etc. TREND PEOPLE Individuals who are felt to have great influ- * Perhaps the actions of the President ence over others or reflect evolving trends of the United States might provide a have also proven useful in the generation of starting point for our description of scenarios. Identifying these individuals and the future. Or even the star of the the implications of their behavior, thoughts, most recent Olympics. etc.,are critical to this technique. TREND AREAS Just as some individuals are observed, so are * Quite a number of trends emerge insome areas of the country and the world. Firms itially in such innovative areas as have been known to send investigators to Cali- California, New York,and Florida. fornla, for instance, to study intensively Closely monitoring these locales evolving trends there. The important idea is would be most productive to a bicycle not the trend, per se, but the impact of the manufacturer. trend on other developments which may be useful in scenario analysis. -10 -

TECHNIQUE |REFERENCE APPLICATION HOT PRODUCTS Scenarios may also be described by way of * Products which might suggest a future certain new products which by their nature life-style that has implications for will alter life-styles and institutions. non-motorized transportation include Television and the automobile are but two the CB radio, microwave ovens, condoof these. miniums, etc. NEWSPAPER One purchases a copy of the Sunday New York * We might find a recent edition of the Times (or equivalent) and notes every sztu- New York Times contained articles on ation, trend, or change which could have any urban development, retirement, multirippling effects. All events are ir'i',ded, national standards, tax reduction, even those seemingly unrelated to the product the aging of politicians, etc. All area under study. might prompt some bicycle-relevant perception of the future. RELEVANCE TREES This approach (also called PATTERN) formalizes Sigford. If a bicycle manufacturer feels that the earlier technique called Big Dream. It Holt urban living will eventually mandate starts with a grand ideal, as before, bht it p. 27 that residents travel distances of is placed at the base of a "tree" and one asks Jolson a mile or more to buy groceries, he "What must happen if that ideal is to be reach- p. 30 can visualize that some form of motored?" Each branch on the tree is thus relevant Twiss ized individual transport will be to those which follow it. The key is to find p. 88 necessary which will also accomodate necessary branches which are not technically several bags of groceries. feasible now and proceed from there. TECHNIQUES CLASSIFIED BY TYPE OF SCENARIO TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION SCENARIO STATIC Each of the preceding methods results in a ** The fully developed scenario might scenario that is somewhat narrow. Some an- encompass people (how they will interalysts eschew these approaches as partial act, dress, etc.), institutions (the and ineffective. They prefer to pick some family, education, religion, governfuture point in time, completely develop the ment, etc.) processes (communication, scenario, and then explore the implications recreation, transportation, etc.) All for the particular area of interest. of this is then related to bicycles. SCENARIO DYNAMIC Some futurists have committed themselves and ** Few product developers can use such their institutions to a future that is both an approach, but idea seekers can complete and dynamic. They start with the (and do) hitch-hike on the generalized present and construct the detailed unfolding work of such persons as Kahn. Such an of the future. approach might be more appropriate for an industry-wide trade association. SCENARIO HYPOTHETICAL Probably some time before the word "scenario" Simberg A city might well be built on pillars, ever became popular, idea generators realized p. 120 roadways might be of steel mesh, cloththat the purpose of forecasting the future ing no longer an essential, etc. What was not so much to predict actual new products kind of bicycle would be suggested by as to stimulate the imagination and active such conditions? thinking. Therefore, some of them use hypothetical scenarios in which all of the current "givens" (except basic ones like friction and gravity) are absent. GROUP TECHNIQUES - Methodologies which involve the collective efforts of several idea seekers at one time. The key element is to stimulate synergism.. TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION BRAINSTORMING Probably the most well-known of all idea gener- Osborn A group of bicycle enthusiasts could ating techniques. Six to eight people assembled Stein, II be assigned the task of devising an under the guidance of an experienced leader, p. 25 entirely new method of bicycle steerare assigned a specific and tightly defined Manufac- ing. The list could include a steerproblem, and proceed to participate in the turlng ing wheel, a rope and pully system, a actual creative session. The session is con- Group tiller, a push button, etc. Evaluducted in accordance with a set of rules de- p. 82 ation would then ensue. signed to maximize group productivity, such Simberg as the rule of deferred judgment-no one can p. 138 judge another's idea during the session.. 1 --- ——. - -- _ - — _ — - -JI —

TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION PHILLIPS 66 GROUPS A group of people is divided into sub-groups Mason The group of bicyclists above might of six each. Each of these six-person groups utilize the Phillips 66 approach. participates in a brainstorming type session The subdividing and reorganizaton for six minutes (hence the 66 name). The reduces the liklihood of any one ingroups are then reassembled and broken into dlvldual dominating the creative new six-person groups, and the creative session session. Also, since the effect of is repeated. This technique is also called tne the personal chemistry of relationbuzz group method, or the discussion group. ships on creativity is unpredictable, mixing people increases the probability of productive groups. SYNECTICS A complex, advanced form of brainstorming which Gordon Suffice to say that the session might utilizes a specially trained leader, six care- Lincoln involve, among other things, role fully chosen participants, elaborate surround- Prince playing in which the participants ings, and creative activity over severalmcnths. Stein, II pretend to be, say, a bicycle chain, Many of the other creative techniques are used p. 172 and explore alternative means of in the sessions along with the principles of power transmission. detachment, deferred judgment, and speculation. Further study of the method is prerequisite to understanding. THINK TANK A group of highly skilled scientists permanently Barrett A Think Tank organized for our purdrawn from diverse disciplines which concen- poses might include a physician, an trates on a key product or technological break- engineer, a physicist, etc. depending throughs. Surroundings typically pleasant. on the particular task at hand. Synergism is critical, particularly at a very basic level of scientific research. Bell Labs used it to create the transistor. DELPHI This approach is unique in that the group par- Helmer This approach is most useful in deticlpants are not physically together, but Jolson scribing complex scenarios, complex rather are contacted by mall, in a series or p. 27 techniques,complex new systems (e.g., waves of mailings. The results of each wave Twiss, a medical center), or revolutionary of contact are compiled and integrated so that p. 84 technical breakthroughs (e.g., ecoin subsequent waves the participants are asked, nomical solar energy), each of which "Given what the group thinks up to this point, may be of interest to a bicycle manunow how about...." facturer. REVERSE BRAINSTORMING This misnomer refers to a technique which Haefele A group of cycling enthusiasts would actually uses the brainstorming approach, p. 145 be assembled and asked to suggest but instead of being asked how the product ways in which a bicycle might break might be improved, the group is asked what down on a cross-country tour. The is wrong with the product or how it might firm could then take these ideas and fall. seek solutions to prevent or delay the breakdowns. TEAR DOWN METHOD A technique used for two-person groups. One Stein,II One person proposes to add a third participant must suggest a solution to the p. 242 wheel. The other must show why this problem at hand, to which the other partic- idea is no good. The latter then ipant must object and then offer a different proposes a second seat which is (but not necessarily better) solution. The promptly attacked. The good ideas procedure continues until an idea satlsfac- are those which could not be defeated. tory to both individuals is generated. AND-ALSO METHOD Again calls for two participants. The one Stein, II One person suggests a safety bike. participant must suggest an idea and the The second might cite larger tires to other must add to it-"it is a good idea do this. The first then suggests and-also can be improved by...." The in- lower air pressure too. Etc. Topic itiator then adds to the enhanced idea, changes when no further add-on can and so the cycle proceeds. Occasionally be thought of. called Brainwaving; has been used in larger groups. -12 -

TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION TRIGGER SESSION Each member of the group prepares a list of Stein,II If a faster bicycle is sought, one key (or trigger) words, each word holding a person's list might contain words possible clue to solution of the product idea such as wheels, gears, design, perproblem being discussed. Lists are read off, ception, relativity, wind, eyes, discussed, and consolidated. safety, feel, and momentum. EXTENDED GROUP TECHNIQUE Company personnel (marketing and R&'; are Marketing A director of R&D, a product manager, brought together for lengthy sessions with News and a sales manager might spend an product users in which discussions very afternoon with five typical cyclists. similar to that of focus groups are held. Each would present suggestions and The key is interchange in a problem-solving would react to suggestions of the setting. others as they attempted to redesign the bicycle for urban riding. MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES - Unique App-oaches to Idea Generation Which Defy Classification TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION CHECK-LISTS A given series of questions, phrases, or words Osborn Using several items from one of the serve as stimulants to idea generation. The Small check-lists, the process might result investigator proceeds through the list item by p. 212 in the following: item, recording any new product ideas as they Stein, I Make larger? arise. Check lists have been around for over p. 216 balloon tires 50 years and vary widely. Marvin Small offers large seat a comprehensive one. Combine? side car partial motorized Louder? safety horn. CREATIVE STIMULI This technique involves three steps. First, Cantin We might select for the bicycle a one cites the Idea Subject (say, the bicycle). p. 34 goal of safety. Cantln's first three Second, the Tangible Goal (say, no risk of in- stimuli are: jury). One then calls on a series of some Horizontal - 278 controlled, semi-abstract, symbolic, arti- perhaps a better bike stand. ficial stimuli one at a time. The stimuli, Guest Stars - developed by Donald Cantin, are designed to educational promotion by prompt possible solutions, endorsement. Interview - ask physicians to assist us. FREE ASSOCIATION Words and phrases are selected at random and King(1973) Using free association, the following then asked rapid fire. The immediate word p. 106 stimuli and responses might result: responses are intended to be more original Fan - a wind powered bicycle and less conditioned. The stimuli may be Legal - a "police" bicycle for kids. drawn from such sources as a mail-order catalog, a newspaper or a dictionary. At times this technique has been called "Catalog" and "Pick-a-Noun." STIMULATING ENVIRONMENTS Some environments are more stimulating King(1973) The idea seeker might spend a weekend creatively than others. Thus an idea p. 106 out in the country where he would seeker is supposed to seek out concert utilize additional idea generating halls, galleries, isolated mountain techniques. cottages, an open meadow and avoid congested distractive environments. SYSTEMS OR WEAK LINK Products are generally used as parts of human Quinn A bicycle is used in systems of activity systems. Examine each of these sys- p. 98 vocational rehabilitation. Study tems as separate entities, searching partic- of these systems might reveal that ularly for any weak links in the system. A physicians worry most about the heart new or improved product might strengthen that beat rate at the start of exercise. link. To remedy this a special bicycle could be constructed with various body measuring devices attached. -13 -

TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION FORCED RELATIONSHIPS Falling short of the rapid-fire pace of Free Stein,I An unrelated situation might be Association, this technique uses the same p. 217 painting a picture. Is there an basic concept-meaningful but unrelated sltu- Whiting analog? An artist tries to inject ations are forced into a thorough comparislon p. 52 himself into his painting, to personto the product under study. The hope is tha- alize it. Perhaps consumers might unexpected analogs will be found. "Relate to participate in a similar fashion in the Unrelated" and "Surprise Analogs" are other the speclflcatlon of their bicyclenames. "design-a-bike." THE BIG WINNER Big Winners may be products, politicians, in- Daniel- Some recent Big Winners were the stitutlons, athletic teams, or whatever. On enko Plymouth Volare,the Volkswagen the premise that big winners are "in tune" Rabbit, President Carter, the Cinciwith the public needs, the times, the mood, nattl Reds, etc. Exploring their etc., it pays to study them to see if anything elements of success might suggest is relevant to the product under study. A possibilities for the bicycle. leading consulting firm uses the technique (they call it Transfer Concept) based on their study of the twenty all-time best selling new packaged goods. INTERNATIONAL PLAGIARISM Also called Geographical Inventory, this method King (1973) Bicycles are very popular in Europe; simply says look around the world particularly p. 104 surely American manufacturers visit far out-of-the-way places, for new products there periodically to see the latest that no one in your country has thought of yet. creations. American pharmaceutical Of course, modifications may be necessary. One manufacturers have full-time researchadvantage to this technique, however, is that ers lvlng in Europe, carefully monlsome idea of acceptability is also obtained. toring all developmental activities there. WEAKNESSES Consists of studying one's own products and * Analysis might reveal that our line listing every conceivable weakness they have. of bicycles has single and ten-speed The list is then studied for incidence of models, but nothing for the twelveconcern (as to competitive opportunities) and year-old girl who wants a "speed" improvements are scheduled accordingly. This bike but can't handle a ten-speed. is actually more of a defensive technique and Or, that our top quality bicycles are is best used to identify needed product im- using materials or structural forms provements. Line extensions and flanker prod- which have become obsolete. ucts often result from this analysis too. ACHILLES' HEEL The "Weaknesses" method calls for identifying Some say American bicycle firms missed all weaknesses a product or product line has. their Achilles' Heel by not recognizOne can instead focus only on the weakness so ing just how great a threat light serious as to offer competition a basis for a weight bicycles posed. The rejection major thrust. What, if anything, about our of early "English racers" probably product is such that a competitive move would increased the ultimate share of U.S. cut our share by half or more? market held by foreign firms. ANALOG Two situations which have something very basic Gordon Bicycling has very much in common in common can yield new ideas if one studies p. 40 with automobile driving-steering, those aspects which are not in common. For in- Stein,II moving, etc. But the auto carries stance, a kitchen table manufacturer studied p. 188 more passengers, has four wheels for airline feeding as an analog to home feedings. stability, variable power, built-in The analog is a major one deliberately sought communications, etc. Each difference and extensively studied (other techniques suggests a new product, a couple of strive to discover unintended or unexpected which are already available. analogs). Called Bionics if analog is nature. SURVEY Ideas for new products can also be obtained Employees could participate in an directly from consumers, employees, distrib- incentive program in which they utors, etc. To clarify, this method seeks benefit from offering original new product ideas directly, whereas need assess- product items. ment methods seek problems or needs from which products can then be devised. -14 -

TECHNIQUE REFERENCE APPLICATION LATERAL THINKING Also called Disparate Thinking, Zig-Zag and DeBono A blcycllst typically sits on the Divergent Thinking, this approach involves top of his bike, riding forward, challenging all of the givens and assumptions leaning on his handle bars, pumping and avoiding logical thought patterns. Be the pedals, etc. Visualize a biwildly inductive. A top proponent of this cycle being ridden with each of these method claims that it was used to solve the givens substantially altered. problem of theft of light bulbs in Boston subways: light bulbs were made which screwed in counterclockwise. STEREOTYPE'S SOLUTION Ask yourself "How would do it?" King (1973) A minister and a bicycle- how about and fill in the blank with any of the p. 106 a way to prop up a map or guide in standard stereotypes-a professor, a front of the cyclist? A senatorminister, a policeman, a Scot, or loudspeaker, pedal both ways? whatever comes to mind. Suggests alternative perspectives. THEORETICAL LIMITS TEST Take any situation or device and push Quinn Bike tires thinner and thinnerany of its dimensions to the extreme maybe disposable ones will be and explore the consequences. Engineers necessary. If the seat gets smaller have long used this method in the lab. and smaller, why have one at all? So can product developers to generate new product ideas. CROSSFIELD SCIENTIFIC COMPILATIONS As science becomes steadily more complex, King(1973) Researchers employed by a bicycle its parts become increasingly isolated. p. 100 manufacturer might gain from monitorIf a firm's work is primarily in one area, ing physiology, where perhaps new say chemistry, it should monitor develop- understanding of muscular power transments in other fields, say physics, biology, fer is developing; or physics, where etc. New applications may be found by the principles of centrifigual force may firm's scientists even when those in the suggest substitutes for spokes. other fields are entirely unsuspecting. TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION FOLLOW-ONS Much technological forecasting attempts to King (1973) Some day blind persons will be able predict where various truly significant p. 100 to regain their sight. Will they breakthroughs will come about and uses need special vehicular transportation' several of the techniques discussed earlier. Micro-processors will cost only a few But here, the innovations provide a starting dollars-could one control the funcpoint. The idea seeker explores the impll- tions of the bicycle? cations of the breakthrough. INDUCED DISASSOCIATION Stare at the product while trying to keep Whiting To induce a degree of mental disyour mind as blank as possible. The theory association which would offer new is that the effort of denying actual sight associations to replace the one rewill force the mind to substitute new images. pressed, one would simply stare at And since the product dominates the scene, a bicycle until new ways of perceiving the new images will actually be new ways of that vehicle came to mind. looking at the product. * This technique is mentioned in various places, but no published description of it could be found which is more complete than the brief citation here. ** This technique uses a well-publicized concept; its application to creating new product ideas need not be, and is not, discussed at length in any of the sources we used. -15 -

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