Sex and the City Research Paper Literature Review

Below you will find the literature review for my Sex and the City research paper. It includes comments from my instructor which were very helpful. We wrote our paper in sections during this class which allowed me to focus on the literature review before writing the actual paper. I ended up using a lot of sources and learned that writing literature reviews is a long process. 

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Previous research has examined the effects of media use on sexual attitudes and behaviors. Research shows that media influences are significantly associated with adolescents’ sexual intentions and behaviors (L’Engle, Brown, & Kenneavy, 2006). In their study, L’Engle et al. (2006) found  “that adolescents who are exposed to more sexual content in their media diets, and who perceive greater support from the media for teen sexual behavior, report more sexual activity and greater intentions to engage in sexual intercourse in the near future” (L’Engle et al., 2006). This is problematic because researchers have found “the majority of sexual content in the media depicts risk-free, recreational sexual behavior between nonmarried people” (L’Engle et al., 2006). It will be interesting to see how these portrayals affect viewers in relation to my study[GA1] .

A vast majority of media research involves the cultivation theory [GA2] which assumes television as a whole impacts the viewer regardless of the specific content; however, this is not always the case. Ward et al. (2006) argue “that specific critical portrayals may exert a stronger force on impression formation and image building than might the sheer frequency of television viewed” (p. 62). I hope to further explore this notion in my study which is why I will focus on specific portrayals [GA3] in Sex and the City. Studies have examined the sexual content of Sex and the City compared to television in general and found that “Sex and the City featured more sexual content scenes per hour than television in general” (Jensen & Jensen, 2007, p. 279). Because of this, I am interested in analyzing representations of sexual behavior in Sex and the City and how these representations impact viewers.[GA4]

Ward & Friedman (2006) found that “more frequent viewing of Sexy [GA5] Prime-Time programming [like Sex and the City] was associated with stronger support of Recreational Sex” (p. 146). In a content analysis of Sex and the City, Cramer (2007) discovered that there are “frequent references to sex as a ‘‘fun’’ activity; i.e., implying no commitment or deeper intimacy with another” (p.415). She also found discussion of the frequency of sex for the characters on Sex and the City. Similarly, Markle (2008) found that “almost all of the relationships started out as recreational sexual encounters, with sex generally occurring on the first date or meeting” (p.51). As mentioned above, this [GA6] could have potentially negative effects on viewers who might look to the show for validation and approval in regards to their own sexual attitudes and behaviors.

Aside from simply viewing the sexual depictions on Sex and the City, viewers who identify with specific characters may feel greater media effects. Ward and Friedman (2006) found that “more frequent viewing and stronger identification with popular TV characters were associated with greater levels of sexual experience” (p.133). I expect to find similar results in my own study; however, I plan to study the effects of just Sex and the City on a college-age female population whereas this study looked at the effects [GA7] of various television shows on a high-school age male and female population. Ward et al. (2006) explored which characters on television people identify with and found a majority of responses including Carrie on Sex and the City. They found “that identifying with popular characters and perceiving media figures as role models is indeed associated with students’ sexual attitudes and behavior” (Ward et al., 2006, p.63). Likewise, Ward and Rivadenyra (1999) found that “adolescent viewers who experienced greater connection with the sexual situations typically portrayed on network television were also more likely to endorse recreational attitudes toward sex, to expect higher levels of sexual activity among their peers, and to be more sexually experienced.” I expect those who identify with one of the four main female characters on Sex and the City (Carrie, Samantha, Charlotte, Miranda) to feel more in control of their sex lives and to engage in more sex because this is how the characters are represented on the show[GA8] .

It may be that those who identify with the female characters on Sex and the City think it is okay to engage in frequent casual premarital sex after seeing the characters own sexual attitudes and behaviors. Conversely, those who identify with the characters on Sex and the City may do so because the portrayals of sex on the show demonstrated through conversations and behaviors fit with their existing views on sex [GA9] (Rubin, 2002). As is indicated by the content analyses and my own viewing of the show, the sexual attitudes displayed in Sex and the City include the following: casual sex is fun, premarital sex is okay, confidence in the bedroom is attractive, a high sex drive is expected, and a [GA10] woman should sleep with a man on her terms. The sexual behaviors depicted on the show include [GA11] the following: engaging in casual premarital sex, engaging in sexual acts with men who the women do not know very well, initiating sex, and talking about sex with friends.

Although some researchers discuss the negative effects of mass media on sexual attitudes and behaviors, others think that mass media may have a positive influence on young women’s sexual health and development. Ward, Day, & Epstein (2006) found that “despite evidence that a majority of portrayals are one-dimensional sexual stereotypes, some characters are not and instead provide realistic characterizations with which viewers can connect” (p. 58). I propose that the female characters on Sex and the City fall into this category because the show does not portray the characters in terms of sexual stereotypes such as male dominance, female submission, and female sexual objectification. As Sanchez, Kiefer, and Ybarra (2006) note, “the media depict gender-based sexual roles that promulgate female sexual submissiveness” (p. 513). Instead, Sex and the City represents the female characters as initiating, engaging in, and talking about sex more often than the male characters do [GA12] as is indicated by the absence of sexually dominant male characters. In contrast to typical media representations, the male characters on Sex and the City seem to be the ones that are objectified. This could pose its own threats, but they are not of interest to my study. Nevertheless, I am interested in exploring how the male characters in Sex and the City are sexually objectified.

Fortunately, research has been done to investigate the portrayals of men on Sex and the City. Cramer’s (2007) study indicates that “in Sex and the City, male characters are stereotyped, fairly undeveloped, and often labeled. The one male character who could be considered the leading male character on the show (Carrie’s long-term love interest) is never referred to by name but by the nickname she gives him: ‘‘Mr. Big.” Other men are referred to as, ‘‘Mr. Cocky,’’ ‘‘The ‘we’ guy,’’ ‘‘Catholic Guy,’’ ‘‘The Marrying Guy,’’ ‘‘Manhattan Guy,’’ and ‘‘Mr. Pussy’’” (p. 420). Here, we see how men are objectified by being represented in terms of stereotypical descriptors. “In addition, men are often discussed in terms of their anatomy and how they perform sexually. In this sense, they are objects” (Cramer, 2007, p. 420-421).  This portrayal of men as sex objects is atypical for the media.

Usually it is the women who are sexually objectified. However, the four main female characters on Sex and the City do not fit the stereotypical mold of women as sex objects. Markle (2008) found that “the leading women attempt to transgress gendered sexual roles in their quest to experience ‘‘sex like a man’’, which they characterize as without feeling, for pleasure only, and with no commitment” (p.46). Again, this could be problematic for viewers who imitate the attitudes and behaviors of the characters. Markle’s (2008) research explores how one of the characters, Samantha, engages in sex with a variety of partners and performs a variety of sex acts such as threesomes, both of which are stereotypically male behaviors. In a study analyzing unusual sexual acts, Jonason and Marks (2009) found that “a woman who had a threesome with a member of each gender was derogated more than the man who engaged in identical activity” (p. 363). This indicates that the same standards do not apply to men and women engaging in the same sex acts. I hope to further explore this in my study [GA13] by examining the ways in which taboo sexual acts are exposed in Sex and the City. Here is one such example of a Sex and the City character behaving in opposition to stereotypical sexual standards. “In classic gender role reversal, Samantha clearly treats her partners as sex objects and openly disdains the prospect of emotional commitment” (Markle, 2008, p. 52). Lorie’s (2011) study mirrors these findings: “After viewing the entire series we have witnessed how Samantha and her sexually aggressive lifestyle more or less victimizes men by treating them mostly as sexual objects.”

These content analyses have prompted me to inquire about Sex and the City’s reversal of sexual stereotypes such as the depiction of men as sex objects and how these portrayals impact female college-age students’ sexual attitudes and behaviors. It will be interesting to learn if this reversed representation will affect how female college-age students think about and engage in sex. My guess is that undergraduate female college students who choose to watch Sex and the City will assume more powerful, stereotypically “male” behaviors in the bedroom[GA14] . I believe this will be the case because of the modeling theory; as viewers watch Sex and the City, they will attempt to imitate the beliefs and behaviors shown by the main characters.

Previous research has focused on the effects of sexualized television on adolescents’ attitudes and behaviors concerning sex. Researchers have found that children with high sexual media diets are more likely to think favorably about and to engage in casual premarital sex. Many researchers have focused on the specific type of sexual depictions on television as a whole. Other researchers have studied certain programs and the portrayals of sex represented through characters’ behaviors. There is an abundance of literature on the sexual content of Sex and the City including the notion that men are portrayed as sex objects instead of women; however, research lacks the effects of these sexual representations on a college-age female population. My study will fill this gap by analyzing the sexual attitudes and behaviors of those who watch Sex and the City in comparison to those who do not watch Sex and the City. Certain researchers think sexual portrayals on television have positive effects on viewers; other researchers think these portrayals have negative effects on viewers. I don’t plan to directly address this contradiction in my study, but I do plan to determine the outcomes of watching Sex and the City and speculate what this may mean in terms of sexual education and teenage pregnancy[GA15] .

My areas of interest are as follows: sex portrayals on Sex and the City, sexual objectification of men on Sex and the City[GA16] , viewers’ identification with the four main female characters, participants’ attitudes and beliefs about casual premarital sex, and participants’ sexual behaviors. In light of existing research concerning media effects on sexual attitudes and behaviors, specifically those studies involving the sexual content of Sex and the City, the following research questions are of interest to me: “Are Sex and the City viewers more likely to think positively about casual premarital sex?” “Does the high focus of sex in Sex and the City impact viewers’ sexual attitudes and behaviors?” I propose that college-age female students who selectively watch Sex and the City will be more likely to hold positive views on casual premarital sex, will view men as sex objects, and as a consequence, will be more likely to initiate sex[GA17] , while college-age female students who do not selectively watch Sex and the City will be more likely to do the opposite. This effect will be stronger for those who form parasocial interactions with the characters (Ex. “I’m a Carrie[GA18] .”).

References

Cramer, J. M. (2007). Discourses of sexual morality in sex and the city and queer as folk. Journal of Popular Culture, 40(3), 409-432.

Jensen, R. E. & Jensen, J. D. (2007). Entertainment media and sexual health: A content analysis of sexual talk, behavior, and risks in a popular television series. Sex Roles, 56(5), 275-284.

Jonason, P. K. & Marks, M. J. (2009). Common vs. uncommon sexual acts: Evidence for the sexual double standard. Sex Roles, 60(5), 357-365.

L’Engle, K. L., Brown, J. D., & Kenneavy, K. (2006). The mass media are an important context for adolescents’ sexual behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38(3), 186-192.

Lorie, A. F. (2011). Forbidden fruit or conventional apple pie? A look at sex and the city’s reversal of the female gender. Media, Culture & Society, 33 (1), 35-51.

Markle, G. (2008). Can women have sex like a man?”: Sexual scripts in sex and the city. Sexuality & Culture, 12(1), 45-57.

Rubin, A. M. (2002). The uses and gratifications perspective of media effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Ed.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 525-548, 2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Sanchez, D. T., Kiefer, A. K., & Ybarra, O. (2006). Sexual submissiveness in women: Costs for sexual autonomy and arousal. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(4), 512-524.

Ward, L. M., Day, K. M., & Epstein, M. (2006). Uncommonly good: Exploring how mass media may be a positive influence on young women’s sexual health and development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2006(112), 57-70.

Ward, L. M. & Friedman, K. (2006). Using TV as a guide: Associations between television viewing and adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16 (1), 133–156.

Ward, L. M. & Rivadenyra, R.  (1999). Contributions of entertainment television to adolescents’ sexual attitudes and expectations: The role of viewing amount versus viewer involvement. The Journal of Sex Research, 36(3), 237-249.


 [GA1]Okay, but you haven’t told me what your study is yet, even broadly speaking.  You might want something about that here.

So should I mention my study at the very beginning or the end of this paragraph or what? Give an overview in the intro

 [GA2]This is not really correct.  You can say a large amount of media research involves cultivation theory, but really, the majority doesn’t, especially at this point in time.

Ok. And should I cite a cultivation study? Change it to some and that will be accurate

 [GA3]Portrayals of what?

I mention this further down, but should I mention it here too? Of what? Gender, sexuality…

 [GA4]Good!

 [GA5]Why is this capitalized?  Was it a particular genre they were creating?

Yes, it was like that in the study…do I need to explain that?

 [GA6]Be specific about what “this” is.  All the facts mentioned above?  You might think of a name to apply to these things—“this emphasis on sex as recreation”, for instance.

Ok!

 [GA7]Now be careful here, because what you’re describing through Ward and Friedman is correlational, not causational, so you can’t be sure which is the effect of the other.  Perhaps greater levels of sexual experience cause stronger identification with popular TV characters.

 [GA8]But again, be sure to point out that you are testing something correlational here, not causal.

 [GA9]Ah, nicely done.  You’ve just addressed my previous two comments.

Ok so do I still need to fix the above part or is this fine here?

 [GA10]“The female” suggests that you’re talking about either a specific person or the gender on the whole.

Ok- so I should change it to a woman?

 [GA11]Might you want to add a (but are not limited to) here, after “include”?  No need to if you don’t like it.

Ok!

 [GA12]But can “sex” and “men”  be separated on this show?

What do you mean by this?

Since there is most often heterosexual portray

 [GA13]According to your comments thus far, you have a LOT going on in your own study.  Be sure that all these things you want to find out can be measured, explained, and described in 5-6 pages, which is what you will be limited to for the second half of your paper.

Any suggestions on how to narrow down my study?

 [GA14]Now this is something you absolutely cannot test, for obvious reasons.

But we could test it through self-reports/surveys…

 [GA15]But aren’t you testing college-age women?  How does this point relate to them?

College-age pregnancy? Is this even necessary to include?

 [GA16]But didn’t you say above that you’re not going to address this in your own study?

Right, but it’s still an area of interest

 [GA17]I’m not sure that likelihood to initiate sex is a direct consequence of viewing men as sex objects.  Can you clarify this connection?

Role reversal, behavior reversal…

Also, keep in mind that if you are using self-report surveys to find out these things (as I assume you are) that there is always the issue of participants trying to either make themselves sound impressive or flat-out lying.

Yes, can I still do this, but address this in my limitations part?

 [GA18]8/10.

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