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Originally written for an\u00a0Anthropology\/Archaeology class in the spring of 2012, this was made in the medium of a scientific research paper presenting differences between two similar archaeological structures in ancient societies.<\/strong><\/p>\n

Symbolic Significance from Roman and Greek Monuments<\/em><\/p>\n

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Abstract<\/b><\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The ancient Greek structure, the Theatre of Dionysus, and the ancient Roman structure, the Roman Coliseum, both represent monumental structures in their respective societies.\u00a0 This paper explores how each of these structures can be seen as a symbolic representation of the overall character of their societies.\u00a0 Using the functions of each structure, as well as the history of each structure and their respective societies, this paper aims to show how the Roman Coliseum and the Greek Theatre of Dionysus are symbolic of the societies as a whole.\u00a0 The focus of Roman society, which tended to be more militaristic, and the focus of Greek society, which tended to be more peaceful, can both be seen symbolically through each of their respective monuments.<\/em><\/p>\n

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Introduction<\/b><\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Many ancient societies are often looked at in terms of their legacy: what they were known for, what contributions they made to the modern world, how long they lasted, etc.\u00a0 In terms of the Roman and Greek societies, each has a specific legacy: the Roman society is known for its militaristic, gladiatorial ways while the Greek society is known as being a very artful, more peaceful society.\u00a0 These legacies are not just demonstrated in each of their histories, but are in fact represented in some of their great monuments.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Research regarding one monument in each society \u2013 the Roman Coliseum and the Greek Theatre of Dionysus \u2013 has been done by many scholars.\u00a0 Hopkins and Beard explored the various traditions and the history associated with the Roman Coliseum while Ley examines the different festivals and ideologies associated with the Greek Theatre of Dionysus.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The archaeological evidence associated with each site has also allowed scholars to figure out how many people each theatre held; how the layout gives evidence of societal stratification; which peoples typically attended performances in each theatre; and also how these particular monuments compare and contrast with other monuments typical of the societies.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 This paper explores multiple aspects of each theatre, including the form in which the theatres were built, the function each theatre served, and the significance each presented to the community as a whole.\u00a0\u00a0 The findings are presented in such a way as to expose how each society\u2019s marked differences in the use and creation of theatre varied in such ways that are largely symbolic of the focus of each of the respective societies.<\/em><\/p>\n

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Form and Function of the Greek and Roman Monuments<\/b><\/em><\/p>\n

Many theatres existed in the state of ancient Greece.\u00a0 The Theatre of Dionysus, however, stands out as being both one of the earliest preserved of the Greek theatres as well as one of the most well-known.\u00a0 Like many Greek theatres, the primary purpose of the Theatre of Dionysus was the performance of dramatic plays, and although during its initial construction the theatre mostly served as a place to watch tragedies, comedies became a more common occurrence later in its timeline.\u00a0 However, tragedy was the ultimately most notable type of performance held at the theatre, and was such a staple of the Greek Theatre that the advent of tragedy is credited to the Athenians and the Theatre of Dionysus (Wilson 1997).<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The general construction of the theatre is similar to many of the Greek theatres that would later follow.\u00a0 Its design is roughly in the shape of a semicircle: the \u201cfront\u201d end of the semicircle (the middle of the flat part) was where the orchestra was located; not too far behind this was the skene \u2013 which means \u201ctent\u201d and was used for scene building; and the largest, arcing part of the semicircle was known as the theatron and was what would be considered nowadays to be the seats of a theatre (Ley 2006). \u00a0Of note is the change in material used to create the theatre through the years.\u00a0 According to Wilson, \u201cExcavations during the 1960s sanctuary of Dionysus provided clear stratigraphical evidence that the foundations of the earliest stone theatre cannot be dated before the mid-fourth century.\u00a0 The fifth-century theatron was therefore built almost entirely of wood\u201d (2007:98).\u00a0 Though the theatre is evidenced to have had rows added onto it over generations, modern estimates place the viewing capacity somewhere around 14,000 viewers (www.stanford.edu accessed 3\/24\/12). Significant also was the location of the Theatre of Dionysus.\u00a0 As the theatre was ultimately an honor to the god Dionysus, it was constructed just south of the Athens Acropolis, and slightly northwest of the Temple of Dionysus (Ley 2006).\u00a0 \u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Unlike the Theatre of Dionysus, whose history is not entirely understood, the Roman Coliseum\u2019s creation was an especially notable act for the Roman people.\u00a0 The area on which the Coliseum stands was originally private ground meant only for the elite under the rule of the 5th<\/sup> Emperor of Rome, Emperor Nero (Quennell 1971).\u00a0 In a way of contrasting Nero\u2019s reign, Emperor Vespasian ordered construction of the Coliseum on the once-private ground, with the intent that it would become public space for all of society.\u00a0 Not only did Vespasian order the construction of the Coliseum as a political act to show his reign differed from Nero\u2019s (Quennell 1971), but also as a monument to celebrate Roman victories \u2013 most likely the recent victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD (Claridge 1998).\u00a0 The construction of the Roman Coliseum began in 72 AD.\u00a0 Although it was not completed under Vespasian\u2019s rule, construction finished in 80 AD under his son, Titus\u2019 rule (Hopkins and Beard 2005).\u00a0 Although construction of the Coliseum was both a political and a monumental act, the Coliseum itself was very special in its own right due to its uniqueness from previous Roman theatres.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Roman Coliseum was both similar to and different from previous iterations of Roman theatres; while most theatres utilized a semi-circle-style architecture, the Roman Coliseum was different in that it was created in the form of two theatres together, creating a full-circle design.\u00a0 This design allowed for a much larger audience \u2013 possibly an audience of up to 58,000 (Coarelli et al. 2001) – as well as a staging ground that made one feel as if there were eyes on him\/her from all directions.\u00a0 In this sense, the Coliseum\u2019s design can also be seen as a way to increase tension or adrenaline in the gladiators who competed there.\u00a0 Much like the powerful and watchful Roman rule, the shape of the arena stands ultimately let gladiators know the eyes of Rome were always upon him.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 In terms of the stands themselves, the interior seating arrangement of the Coliseum was set up in such a way that reflected the stratified nature of Roman society.\u00a0 The closer one was to the arena floor, the higher status that person occupied in society.\u00a0 To give a better picture of this setting, Claridge writes,<\/em><\/p>\n

\u2026Ranged around the same level, on broad platforms to which they brought their own chair (bisellia) sat the senatorial class, all in white togas with red borders.\u00a0 Above the senators came the night (equites), above them the ordinary Roman citizens (the plebs), all in their togas too\u2026.Inscriptions specified the length of seating reserved for particular groups\u2026At the very top, 40 m. above and almost 50 m. away from the arena, was a gallery for the common poor, slaves, and whatever women dared to join them.\u00a0 There it was standing room only, or very steep wooden benches (1998:279).<\/em><\/p>\n

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In this way, the Coliseum itself was much like the Roman society: largely inclusive, but also largely separated by social status.\u00a0 All in all, the Coliseum\u2019s design \u2013 from the unique circular shape, to the noticeably stratified seating, to the grand size and scale \u2013 were very specifically created in such a way that only amplified the effect of its ultimate function: the Roman games.<\/em><\/p>\n

While Roman amphitheatres hosted a large variety of events, the Coliseum is well-known for its demonstrations of gladiatorial-type entertainment and general entertainment based in combat.\u00a0 The first acts to be held at the Coliseum took place in 80 AD as a celebration of its completion (Roth 1993).\u00a0 These games were known as the inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre and they lasted for over 100 days.\u00a0 During the inaugural games, a number of traditional Roman games were played, which followed the regular Roman-games format, beginning with animal entertainment in the morning, executions in midday, and gladiatorial fights later in the afternoon.\u00a0 These types of games were not only performed during the inaugural games, though, and as Quennell describes, \u201cA typical day in the Flavian Amphitheater began with a succession of bloodless duels, often comic or fantastic.\u00a0 The contestants might be women, dwarfs, or cripples, and the weapons they used were frequently made of wood\u201d (1971: 45).\u00a0 While this sort of playful exhibit might seem more in line with laid-back Greek entertainment of the Theatre of Dionysus, an afternoon in the Coliseum tended to be much more violent, and was ultimately a stark contrast to both the Greek Theatre and Greek society as a whole.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 While both the Roman Coliseum and the Theatre of Dionysus function as a means of entertainment for their respective society\u2019s people, most of the overlap stops there.\u00a0 The Coliseum was the epitome of Roman-style games; it featured violent, murderous acts that are a stark contrast to the Greek tragedies performed in Athens.\u00a0 In looking at the functions, it is very clear that each monument is symbolic of the focus of its society.\u00a0 The Greek Theatre is widely known for its memorable tragedies and its celebration of the god Dionysus; Greek society as a whole is a more peaceful society, known for arts and celebration.\u00a0 The Roman Coliseum is known for the gladiatorial games, executions, and reenactments of memorable battles; the Roman society is known as one of the greatest, most militaristic empires of all time.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The function alone did not fully represent each society\u2019s focus, however; so too did the differences in form.\u00a0 The phrase \u201cthe sun never sets on the Roman Empire\u201d is one known by many, and it is representative of how large the Roman society was at its peak.\u00a0 In having such a large, reinforced architecture, the Coliseum can again be seen as a symbol of the Roman society: large, strong, powerful.\u00a0 Not only this, but the audience in the Coliseum \u2013 being over three times as many as the Greek Theatre\u2019s \u2013 is a great symbol of the expansiveness of each society.\u00a0 Rome\u2019s society was powerful and large, and so too was its Coliseum; Greek society was smaller and less expansive, so too was its Theatre.\u00a0 Examining the form and function of the Coliseum and Theatre of Dionysus \u2013 although only two aspects of each – paints clear distinctions, and these distinctions are all extremely symbolic of the respective focus of Roman and Greek society.<\/em><\/p>\n

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Attending Communities and Overall Significance of the Greek and Roman Monuments<\/b><\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Though the form and function are clear ways of finding a symbolic relationship between the monuments and the focuses of the Greek and Roman societies, so too are the ways in which each were used by communities, and their overall significance to the society.\u00a0 The Roman Coliseum and Greek Theatre of Dionysus were both used by different crowds and for different reasons, and each held a different degree of significance in the history of each of their societies.<\/em><\/p>\n

The Greek society was one which often paid tribute to its gods.\u00a0 The Theatre of Dionysus was used in particular as a place of celebration each year; it served as the location of the Dionysia, a celebration of the god Dionysus (Cole 1993).\u00a0 This event helped to exemplify just how significant the Theatre was to the community and just exactly how it could bring people together in homage.\u00a0 The Dionysia was broken into two parts, the rural Dionysia and the city Dionysia which took place approximately three months after the rural Dionysia. Especially noteworthy were the performances put on during the City Dionysia.\u00a0 This portion of the Dionysia, which lasted several days, began with the pompe: a procession of citizens, metics (those who did not have citizen rights), and representatives from Athenian colonies all marching with a wooden statue towards the Theatre of Dionysus (Cole 1993).\u00a0 Also included in this procession in the mid-5th<\/sup> century BC were gifts and weapons that were used as a showcase of the Athenians strength; bulls to be sacrificed in the theatre; and the chorus leaders who dressed in ornate and expensive clothing (Cole 1993).<\/em><\/p>\n

The pompe alone can be seen as a very significant act of unification of the Athenian society.\u00a0 Bringing together many of the people in the society to celebrate helps to not only bring joy and celebration to the society, but also serves as a way to unite the people with a common celebration.\u00a0 Furthermore, in creating such a vast procession every year, the Dionysia helped to honor a god very important to the Athenian people and create a unified ideological belief in the society.\u00a0 However, the pompe was not the entire celebration, and the majority of the City Dionysia actually took place in the theatre.<\/em><\/p>\n

Following the pompe, several days of performances took place at the theatre.\u00a0 These plays were not only seen and performed in honor of Dionysus, but also served as competition among playwrights.\u00a0 Each playwright submitted three tragedies and at least one satyr play, which were then judged to determine a winner (Cole 1993).\u00a0 The winning playwright was not only considered very honorable, but was also rewarded a prize (typically a wreath of ivy).\u00a0 The City Dionysia served as a way of bringing together many of the Greek people in celebration; however, though it was a grand celebration, stratification still did exist in the Greek society and may give evidence of to whom the Theatre primarily provided entertainment.<\/em><\/p>\n

While there is no clear evidence as to who exactly the theatron consisted of, there are certain aspects of Athenian life that can be used to get an idea of who may have attended performances.\u00a0 According to Ley (2006), adult males held a lot of power in Athenian society, with immigrants or those not of Athenian descent holding less power (though they still made up a large portion of society, and women and slaves holding virtually no power.\u00a0 Ley continues to say that \u201c\u2026the likelihood must be that of all the categories Athenian women and slaves would be the least in evidence\u201d (49).\u00a0 These uses and exclusivities can be seen as a large contrast to that of the Roman Coliseum, whose significance and uses vary almost entirely from the Greek Theatre.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The symbolic significance of the Roman Coliseum can be seen all the way from its inception.\u00a0 Originally commissioned by Emperor Vespasian, the Coliseum\u2019s Latin name was \u201cAmphitheatrum Flavium\u201d named after the Flavian dynasty (Edmonson 2005).\u00a0 As previously mentioned, it was intended to be built not just as another Roman theatre, but also as a reflection of Vespasian\u2019s power and political policy by upturning the manner in which the land had been previously allocated (Bomgardner 2000).\u00a0 This is perhaps most greatly evidenced in the block with the engraving that reads (translated from Latin): \u201cThe Emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general\u2019s share of the booty\u201d (Hopkins and Beard 2005).\u00a0 Hopkins and Beard\u2019s take on this is that \u201cVespasian was dramatically making the point that the profits of Roman military success belonged, at least in part, to the common people of Rome; it was not only emperor and aristocracy who were to enrich themselves with the booty of empire\u201d (2005: 32).\u00a0 While no one knows for sure if it was his original intent, this act of construction served as a way to unite the Roman people and create a stronger, more unified society.\u00a0 In this sense, from the very beginning, the Coliseum was more than another Roman amphitheatre; it was a symbol.\u00a0 A symbol of change, unification, and strength; and one that would be influential throughout the ages.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 The Coliseum\u2019s effect on future buildings \u2013 and not just those in Rome \u2013 can be seen in future architecture.\u00a0 As previously mentioned, the amphitheatre was the first of its kind to be designed as a full-circle arena; however, archaeological evidence of future theatres built in the same style exist as a part of many other ancient societies that came after Rome.\u00a0 Hopkins and Beard describe its influence as becoming \u201c\u2026almost an instant archetype, a marker of \u2018Romanness\u2019 across the empire\u201d (2005:25).\u00a0 For example, the Capua ampitheatre in southern Italy exhibits a different style of columnar succession which resembles the Roman Coliseum\u2019s style.\u00a0 Moreover, El Jem in Tunisia also exhibits a style of architecture much in the same vein as the Coliseum\u2019s.\u00a0 Hopkins and Beard (2005) place the number of amphitheatres that followed the Coliseum\u2019s model at well over two hundred by the end of the second century.\u00a0 Even in this sense, the Coliseum was a strong symbol of the Roman society; it was not only original and unique, but also left a legacy whose influence can be seen all around ancient society.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 None can argue that both monuments hold valuable meaning to each society; both serve as ways of uniting people; both are used as a venue for performances; and both have had great impacts on future societies.\u00a0 Greek society, however, as a whole was less militaristic than the Roman society.\u00a0 This is not only present in the historical record, but also in the function of the Theatre.\u00a0 The Theatre can more or less be used as a symbol of the larger Greek society as a whole; from the celebrations honoring ideological deities to the numerous stage performances the Theatre was so well known for, almost everything done at the Theatre of Dionysus is exemplary of Greek society at large.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 In contrast to this is the Roman Coliseum, which may at first seem similar but can be seen to be very much different when its functions are closely looked at.\u00a0 The Coliseum was built from the very beginning as a political move, meant to overshadow and undermine the rule of Emperor Nero.\u00a0 Nowhere in the Theatre of Dionysus\u2019 conception was a single political motive.\u00a0 In this sense, one can see how the Coliseum may also be seen as a symbol of the larger Roman society.\u00a0 Roman society is known for its conquest and dynastic leadership, and the Coliseum is a small-scale representation of the larger-scale political acts that took place throughout the longer history of Rome.<\/em><\/p>\n

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Conclusion<\/b><\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 Both the Roman and Greek Empires utilize the amphitheatre-style architecture in their societies for a number of different social constructs.\u00a0 However, while the architecture may be generally the same (with still some degree of variation), the functions and communal impact of each is very different.\u00a0 It is in these differences that one can see a small-scale representation of the focuses of each large-scale society.\u00a0 The Roman Empire spanned great distances, and consisted of many dynasties and militaristic acts; the Roman Coliseum was originally commissioned as a political act was used for hundreds of years, and honored many emperors of many dynasties.\u00a0 The Greek society is historically responsible for a number of different modern-day art forms, and is considered the birthplace of tragedies and many other arts; the Greek Theatre of Dionysus reveled in watching tragedies and honoring the gods.\u00a0 While each is just one monument in each society, their form, function, historical significance, and legend can all be seen as symbolic representations of the overall focus of the societies in which each existed.<\/em><\/p>\n

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[Works Cited<\/a>]<\/p>\n"}