More than adding a T: Transgender inclusion in Michigan gay rights ordinances, 1992--2000.

Abstract

The existing social movement literature has paid little attention to the existence and perpetuation of secondary marginalization of social movement subgroups within social movements, particularly the way in which the oppressed becomes the oppressor within social movements. This dissertation suggests that the allied commitments or identity solidarity between activists within a movement plays a role in overcoming secondary marginalization. In my study of transgender inclusion in LGBT movement, I examine case studies of gay rights ordinances in three Michigan cities (Grand Rapids, Ypsilanti and Ferndale) through the use of historical archives and 76 semi-structured interviews. This dissertation illustrates that activists bring different types of identity solidarity or allied commitment---committed, ambivalent and skeptical identity solidarity---to social movement activities. Activists with strong committed identity solidarity towards transgender inclusion play an active role in advocating for transgender inclusion within the LGBT movement, whereas activists with ambivalent or skeptical commitments often inadvertently perpetuate transgender marginalization. Committed lesbian, gay, bisexual and heterosexual ally (LGBH) activists are instrumental at getting transgender inclusion on the group agenda of organizations that do not include transgendered individuals. This agenda setting is effective in influencing the inclusion of transgender protections in local gay rights ordinances. However, this agenda setting is less effective for the strategy of referendum organizations when gay rights ordinances go to vote.