Effects of context and sex on hierarchy negotiation tactics.

Abstract

Two studies explored the tactics that individuals use to improve their position relative to others (hierarchy negotiation). Study 1 examined the perceived likelihood and effectiveness of hierarchy negotiation tactics performed by men and women in different contexts. Undergraduates (n = 227) judged how likely and how effective each of 79 acts (representing 26 tactics) would be in negotiating social, occupational, academic, or athletic hierarchies. Different patterns of likelihood and effectiveness emerged for each of the contexts. Tests for sex differences revealed that women were seen as more likely to use Social Display/Networking tactics more than men. Men were perceived to use Deception/Manipulation and Athletic tactics more than women. The results were used to evaluate evolutionary expectations of context and sex effects, and to interpret previous research on related topics such as power, social influence, and manipulation. Study 2 examined the self-reported likelihood of respondents performing the 26 tactics to negotiate social and occupational hierarchies. Respondents (n = 92) of mixed ages, socioeconomic backgrounds, education, occupations, and income evaluated their likelihood of performing the 79 acts (comprising the 26 tactics) of hierarchy negotiation in each of a social and an occupational setting. Advancing Professionally, Ingratiating Self with Superiors, Aggressing, Socializing Selectively, and Knowledge/Industriousness tactics were reported to be more likely in occupational contexts than in social contexts. Attracting the Opposite Sex, Social Participation, and Using Relatives were reported to be more likely in social contexts than in occupational contexts. Most of the Deception/Manipulation, Social Display/Networking, and Autonomy tactics were reported to be equally likely in social and occupational contexts. Men reported being more likely to Display Athleticism, Aggress, Ingratiate Self with Superiors, Assume Leadership, or to use Deception/Manipulation tactics than women. Women reported being more likely than men to Enhance their Appearance or to Cultivate Friendships to gel ahead. There were no sex differences in the reported likelihoods of men and women using Social Display/Networking, Knowledge/Industriousness, or Autonomy tactics. Results were discussed in light of evolutionary theory and related research on sex differences in dominance, aggression, attractiveness, and deceptive self-promotion.