The Determinants and Consequences of Solitary Confinement: Risk Factor, Future Criminal Justice Involvement, and Mortality

Abstract

Dramatic growth of the prison population in the United States over the last four decades accompanies significant qualitative transformations in the conditions of imprisonment. At this historic moment, some of the most extreme forms of punishment are not only tolerated but embraced – often without critical considerations of their effectiveness, nor their potential collateral consequences. Indeed, prisons have become focused less on rehabilitation and more on punishment and containment. The startling, expanded use of solitary confinement exemplifies this trend toward more punitive penal practices. Despite widespread use, the determinants and consequences of solitary confinement have not been thoroughly investigated. This study leverages rich administrative data on individuals who were sentenced to prison and observed over time to investigate: the risk factors of exposure to solitary confinement, its effect on future criminal justice contact, and long-term consequences on mortality after release from prison. Analyses offer several key findings: First, net of key factors predictive of behavioral risk, solitary confinement disproportionately concentrates some of the most vulnerable and disadvantaged inmates, including individuals with mental illness history. This underscores the persistence of disparate treatment in the workings of the criminal justice system. Second, solitary confinement significantly increases the likelihood of reoffending, including violent crimes. Because the majority of prisoners are eventually released back into the community, high rates of reoffending suggest that in the long-run solitary confinement threatens public safety. Third, any exposure to solitary confinement significantly elevates the risk of mortality after release, and this is driven in large by premature injury-related mortality, including homicides, suicides, and transportation accidents, which are all preventable causes of death. Together, this research contributes to existing literature by identifying solitary confinement as a particularly consequential experience that intensifies the impacts of incarceration and that has significant implications for understanding social inequality, public safety, and public health.