Probable Cigarette Dependence, PTSD, and Depression after an Urban Disaster: Results from a Population Survey of New York City Residents 4 Months after September 11, 2001

Abstract

Disaster exposure may exacerbate psychopathology and substance–related disorders. Four months after September 11, 2001, using random–digit dialing to contact a representative sample of adults (N = 2001) living in New York City, we assessed cigarette smoking and symptoms of probable cigarette dependence using measures from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health.Atotal of 36.8% of smokers reported increased cigarette use; 10.4% of respondents reported three or more symptoms of cigarette dependence and were considered cases of probable cigarette dependence based on DSM–IV criteria. Cases were more likely to report an increase in cigarette use since September 11 than non–cases (69.4% among cases vs. 2.2% among non–cases, p < 0.001). Cases were more likely to have probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression than non–cases (18.1% vs. 5.7% for PTSD, p < 0.001; 23.6% vs. 6.0% for depression, p < 0.001). Increased cigarette use since September 11 was associated with probable PTSD among cases (23.4% vs. 6.4%, p = 0.011) and non–cases (15.1% vs. 5.5%, p = 0.034) but was associated with probable depression only among cases of probable cigarette dependence (28.3% vs. 13.3%, p = 0.027). This study showed the co–occurrence of probable cigarette dependence with increased cigarette use and the co–occurrence of probable cigarette dependence with probable PTSD and depression after September 11.