Mineral Resources, Economics and the Environment

Abstract

As we move into the 21st century, mineral supplies have become a truly global concern. For most of human history, developed countries have consumed far more than their per capita share of world mineral production. Everyone talked about the day when the rest of the world might want its share of the pie, but it was largely an abstract notion. Now, they are at the door. In fact, China has become the world’s largest consumer of mineral resources, and India is not far behind. This momentous change poses two threats. First, there is the possibility that we will run out of the minerals even sooner than we thought. Second, there is the increased pollution caused by their extraction and consumption, which has already destroyed the environment in some areas. These threats have generated a wide range of opinions about mineral resources and the environment. At one end of the spectrum are those who advocate a dramatic reduction in new mineral production with recycling and conservation providing for the future. At the other end are those who feel that vigorous exploration will always find new minerals and that they can be produced safely with minimal attention to the environment. Both camps are on perilous ground. Many mineral commodities, such as oil and fertilizers, cannot be recycled and the growing demand from developing countries will consume any minerals that are conserved by developed countries. To make matters worse, numerous studies have shown that Earth’s storehouse of mineral deposits is indeed finite and that substitutes for important mineral commodities are scarce. Finally, we cannot ignore the environmental catastrophes that have been caused by past mineral production or the impending problems likely to be caused by increasing global mineral consumption. Unless we are willing to make a dramatic reduction in our standard of living, however, we must find a way to produce and consume the enormous volumes of minerals that we need without significant degradation of the environment. In other words, we must find a middle ground in these arguments, and this means compromise. Unfortunately, compromise is impossible if the parties involved do not understand the problem. That is where this book comes in. It provides an introduction to the geologic, engineering, economic and environmental factors that govern the production and consumption of mineral resources. This sort of comprehensive information is required if we are to understand all sides of an argument and, hopefully, find a solution. The book is intended largely for use as a college text, although it can also be used as a primer for anyone with an interest in mineral resources. Mineral professionals who seek a broader view of their field will also find it useful. Because this audience has such a wide range of backgrounds, an effort has been made to make the book a self-contained document, in which all terms and concepts are explained. A basic high school education is all that is needed to read this book. Introductory material on geology, chemistry, engineering, economics, and accounting have been included, along with a glossary of terms. Appendices with information on elements, minerals, rocks, mineral commodities, units of weight and measure, and mineral reserves and resources, have also been included, as have references to recent literature. In keeping with their wide use throughout the world, metric (SI) units are used in most parts of this book, including the term tonne for metric ton. Other units, such as flasks and troy ounces, are also used where dictated by convention. This book deals with controversial subjects and we have expressed opinions about some of them. We have tried to do this on a case-by-case basis, without following any specific agenda or point of view. It is encouraging in that respect that the book has been cited as too "industry oriented" by some and too "environmentally oriented" by others. Hopefully, each camp will find much that is familiar and friendly, but also much that challenges assumptions and encourages factual debate intended to solve problems and produce a consensus. We will all find many areas in which more data are needed before final decisions can be reached. Although this book has two authors, it is the product of many minds. We are very grateful to the numerous geologists, mining engineers, metallurgists, mineral economists, and other professionals who have allowed access to their projects or operations over the years, and to the many environmentalists who have discussed their research and concerns with us. We are equally grateful to the many students, particularly those in GS/ES380 at the University of Michigan, who have been a constant source of new information and challenging questions. We are especially grateful to Dale Austin and Marc Gellote for invaluable assistance with the figures and to Hannah Sherman for compiling the list of references.